THE 

SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF 
NORWAY 


STByd 


BY 

DAVID  ALLEN  ANDERSON,  M.  A. 


SUBMITTED  IN  PARTIAL  FULFILLMENT  OF  THE 
REQUIREMENTS  FOR  THE  DEGREE  OF 
DOCTOR  OF  PHILOSOPHY 

IN 


THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  EDUCATION 

THE  STATE  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA 

TO 

THE  GRADUATE  FACULTY 


IOWA  CITY,  IOWA 
1912 


Return  this  book  on  or  before  the 
Latest  Date  stamped  below. 


University  of  Illinois  Library 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2016 


https://archive.org/details/educationproblem00leed_0 


7 


THE 

SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF 
NORWAY 


BY 

DAVID  ALLEN  ANDERSON,  M.  A. 


SUBMITTED  IN  PARTIAL  FULFILLMENT  OF  THE 
REQUIREMENTS  FOR  THE  DEGREE  OF 
DOCTOR  OF  PHILOSOPHY 

TO 

THE  GRADUATE  FACULTY 

IN 

THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  EDUCATION 

THE  STATE  UNIVERSITY  OF  IOWA 


IOWA  CITY,  IOWA 
1912 


Copyright,  1913,  by  Richard  G.  Badger 
All  rights  reserved 


The  Gorham  Press,  Boston,  U.  S.  A. 


wx  - y 2 $ 


S'H  •I-'*  I 

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AUTHOR’S  PREFACE 

THIS  account  is  a descriptive  statement  of 
the  organization,  management,  operation, 
and  efficiency  of  the  public  school  system  of 
Norway.  The  intent  has  been  to  consider 
only  the  more  vital  features,  those  essentials  which 
definitely  shape  the  products  of  educational  endeavor. 
Many  topics  of  interest  have  been  touched  but  briefly 
while  others  have  been  omitted  altogether.  Some 
attention  has  been  given  to  pointing  out  good  qualities 
of  the  Norwegian  schools  and  to  indicating  wherein  we 
might  improve  our  own. 

The  materials  entering  into  the  make-up  of  this 
dissertation  were  gathered  during  a summer  and 
autumn  devoted  to  travel  and  study  in  Norway.  Much 
time  was  spent  in  study  at  the  University  Library  in 
Christiania  and  still  more  in  the  visitation  of  schools. 
It  was  with  pleasure  that  I availed  myself  of  the  oppor- 
tunity to  see  the  schools  in  operation.  I observed 
recitations  throughout  the  entire  program  of  study  in 
every  grade  from  the  kindergarten  to  the  University. 
I also  visited  many  special  schools  and  other  educational 
institutions  both  public  and  private.  Further  than 
this,  I was  benefited  by  frequent  conferences  with  the 
leading  educators  of  the  country  and  by  almost  con- 
stant associations  with  schoolmen,  patrons,  and  stu- 

3 


"T A/Vu<vt 


4 


AUTHOR’S  PREFACE 


dents.  These  personal  investigations  enabled  me  to 
become  familiar  with  the  spirit  and  work  of  the  schools, 
and  they  furnish  background  for  a large  part  of  the 
content  of  this  treatise.  Since  no  adequate  account  of 
the  schools  of  Norway  is  in  print,  the  authority  for  this 
work  has  been  gained  chiefly  from  school  laws,  annual 
reports  from  the  Department  of  Ecclesiastical  and 
Educational  Affairs  (chiefly  statistical),  and  the  in- 
dividual research  referred  to  above. 

It  was  my  good  fortune  to  be  provided  with  official 
credentials  as  holder  of  a Traveling  Fellowship  for 
study  in  Norway  from  the  State  University  of  Iowa;  a 
commission  to  study  the  school  system  of  Norway 
from  His  Excellency,  B.  F.  Carroll,  the  Governor  of 
the  State  of  Iowa;  and  a letter  of  introduction  to  Nor- 
way’s educational  executives  from  Hon.  Elmer  Ells- 
worth Brown,  at  that  time  Commissioner  of  Education 
for  the  United  States.  These  credentials  had  the 
effect  of  intensifying  the  already  superior  courtesy  and 
obliging  disposition  of  the  Norwegian  officials  and 
schoolmen,  who  gave  me  free  access  to  every  facility 
for  the  pursuance  of  my  work  within  the  state  and 
voluntarily  offered  their  co-operation  whenever  I might 
desire  it.  Their  gracious  exemplification  of  the  spirit 
of  brotherly  kindness  made  my  work  among  them  a 
constant  delight.  I desire  to  express  my  gratitude  to 
the  Norwegians  wherever  I traveled  for  the  rare  cordial- 
ity characterizing  my  reception  among  them  and  to 
acknowledge  my  obligations  to  J.  K.  Qvigstad,  chef  for 
Kirk-og  Undervisningsdepartmentet;  Knut  Johannes 
Hougen,  byraachef  for  Undervisningsvaesen ; A.  H.  Rae- 


AUTHOR’S  PREFACE 


5 


der,  Undervisningsraadets  formand;  Johan  Andreas 
Johnsen,  Skoledireldoren  i Kristiania  stift;  Otto  Andreas 
Anderssen,  Bestyrer  og  forstelaerer  i det  Paedagogiske 
Seminar  for  Laerere  ved  hoiere  Almenskoler , for  valuable 
suggestions  and  careful  reading  and  criticism  of  the 
entire  work  in  manuscript;  further  to  Iowa’s  Board  of 
Education  and  the  Graduate  Faculty  of  the  State 
University  of  Iowa  for  the  appointment  which  made 
possible  the  investigation;  to  Professor  F.  E.  Bolton, 
who  first  suggested  that  I make  the  study  and  who  has 
constantly  been  to  me  a wise  counsellor  and  a willing 
co-operator;  and  finally  to  my  wife  who,  through  all, 
has  been  both  critic  and  companion. 

David  Allen  Anderson. 

The  State  University  of  Iowa, 

Iowa  City, 

May,  1912. 


REVIEWER’S  PREFACE 


Kristiania  den  16  februar  1912. 
Jeg  har  med  stor  fornoielse  gjennemlaest  Mr.  David 
A.  Andersons  fremstilling  av  Norges  Undervisnings- 
vaesen  og  fundet  den  i all  vaesentlige  ting  korrekt, 
fuldstaendig  og  oplysende.  Gjennem  personlig  iagtta- 
gelse,  samtale  med  kompetente  maend  og  studium  av 
den  vigtigste  litteratur  er  det  lykkes  forfatteren  at 
danne  sig  en  klar  og  noiagtig  forestilling  om  de  norske 
skolers  ordning  og  saeregne  arbeidsformer  i deres 
historiske  tilblivelse  og  nuvaerende  vilkaar.  Hans 
reflektioner  og  domme  vedner  om  paedagogiske  ind- 
sight  og  uavhaengig  opfatning.  Det  er  mulig  at  han 
nu  og  da  er  noget  tilboielig  til  at  domme  vel  gunstig 
om  vore  skoleinstitutioners  effektivitet  og  vort  folks 
interesse  og  offervillighed  for  at  gjore  denne  saa  stor 
some  mulig,  men  dette  for  haenge  sammen  med  at  han 
ser  tingene  mot  en  bakgrund  av  amerikanske  forhold, 
som  han  onsker  reformeret. 

Jeg  har  ikke  havt  anledning  til  at  kontrollere  i det 
enkelte  de  statistiske  opgaver  forfatteren  meddeler, 
men  da  disse  er  hentet  ut  fra  officielle  kilder  tviler  jeg 
ikke  paa  at  de  er  rigtige. 

Professor  dr  Otto  Anderssen, 
Principal  of  the  Pedagogical  Seminary  annexed  to  the 
University  of  Christiania . 


7 


REVIEWER’S  PREFACE 


(Translation) 

Christiania,  February  16,  1912. 

I have,  with  great  pleasure,  read  through  Mr.  David 
A.  Anderson’s  presentation  of  Norway’s  school  system 
and  found  it  in  all  essentials  correct,  complete  and 
illuminating.  Through  personal  observation,  conver- 
sation with  competent  men  and  study  of  the  most 
important  literature,  the  author  has  succeeded  in  get- 
ting a clear  and  exact  view  of  the  Norwegian  school 
methods  and  characteristic  forms  of  work  in  their 
historical  development  and  present  condition.  His 
reflections  and  judgments  testify  to  pedagogical  insight 
and  independence  of  views.  It  may  be  that  now  and 
then  he  is  somewhat  inclined  to  judge  too  favorably  as 
to  the  efficiency  of  our  institutions  and  the  interest  of 
our  people  and  their  readiness  to  sacrifice  in  order  to 
make  this  efficiency  as  high  as  possible,  but  this  may  be 
due  to  the  fact  that  he  views  it  against  a background  of 
American  conditions,  which  he  desires  to  improve. 

I have  not  taken  occasion  to  verify  in  detail  the 
statistical  tables  the  author  includes,  but  since  they 
have  been  gathered  from  official  sources  I do  not  doubt 
that  they  are  correct. 

Professor  Dr.  Otto  Anderssen, 
Principal  of  the  Pedagogical  Seminary , affiliated  with 
the  University  of  Christiania . 

8 


EDITOR’S  PREFACE 


THE  most  pressing  problems  of  education 
at  the  present  time  are  those  of  organization 
and  administration  of  educational  forces. 
Problems  of  method  of  instruction  though 
important  are  entirely  subsidiary,  for  if  all  the  people 
can  be  aroused  to  a desire  for  education  and  then  be 
shown  ways  and  means  of  attaining  it  the  very  desire 
for  education  will  be  the  most  important  factor  in 
learning. 

No  means  of  studying  questions  of  organization  and 
administration  are  so  valuable  *as  the  comparative. 
Various  studies  of  education  in  foreign  countries  have 
been  made,  but  there  still  exists  a need  for  many  more 
investigations.  Norway  has  furnished  a great  many 
illustrious  statesmen,  scientists  and  literary  masters, 
and  is  also  a country  abounding  in  men  of  a high  type 
of  valor,  physical  prowess,  honesty  and  industry,  and 
consequently  the  educational  ideals  and  practices 
which  prevail  there  should  be  worthy  of  most  careful 
consideration.  Heretofore,  only  fragmentary  accounts 
of  Norway’s  educational  system  have  been  available 
in  the  English  language.  At  the  writer’s  suggestion, 
Mr.  Anderson  made  a trip  abroad  for  the  purpose  of 
studying  the  system  at  first  hand.  His  intimate 
acquaintance  with  the  language  was  a prime  essential 


9 


10 


EDITOR’S  PREFACE 


in  acquiring  an  understanding  through  observation 
and  reading.  That  he  has  made  an  accurate  interpreta- 
tion is  attested  by  the  foreword  of  one  of  Norway’s 
eminent  scholars  and  that  he  has  made  an  interesting 
account  will  be  conceded  by  all  who  peruse  the  pages. 
It  is  hoped  that  many  more  studies  of  a similar  nature 
will  follow  in  the  near  future. 

Frederick  E.  Bolton, 

State  University  of  Washington , 

Seattle , April  8 , 1913. 


CONTENTS 


Chapter  I 

Background  and  Organization 

I.  Introduction 19 

1.  History  of  Norway  (brief  sketch) ....  19 

2.  Geographical  features 22 

3.  National  characteristics,  aims  and 

ideals 25 

II.  Differentiation  of  Schools 23 

1.  Primary  schools — rural  and  city. ...  23 

2.  Secondary 30 

3.  The  University  and  other  schools. . . 32 

III.  Distribution  of  Schools  and  Pupils.  34 

1.  Primary — rural  and  city 34 

2.  Secondary — middle  school  and  gym- 
nasium  41 

3.  Teachers’  Seminaries 41 

4.  The  University 41 

5.  Private  schools 43 

IV.  Pupils 44 

1.  Age  in  primary  schools,  secondary 

schools  and  teachers’  seminaries ....  44 

2.  Comparisons  with  America  in  equip- 
ment and  time  spent  in  school 50 

3.  Specialization 51 


CONTENTS 


V.  Organization — Relation  to  state,  com- 
mune and  city 51 

1.  The  state  department  and  its  divi- 

sions  51 

2.  Units  of  organization 53 

3.  The  school  board  and  school  com- 

mittees   56 

4.  City  superintendent  ( Inspector ) and 

ward  principles  ( Overlaererer ) ....  60 

5.  Private  citizens  a factor 61 

6 . F inancial  support  of  schools 62 

VI.  Buildings  and  Grounds 64 

1.  General  character  of  buildings 64 

2.  Equipment 64 

3.  Playgrounds 69 

4.  Homes  for  principals  and  teachers. . . 70 

VII.  General  Features  of  Inner  Organiz- 
ation   71 

1.  The  teaching  staff 71 

2.  Plan  of  instruction 72 

3.  Gymnastics 74 

4.  Lunches 75 

5.  School  discipline 76 

6.  Attendance 77 

7.  Health 77 


CONTENTS 


Chapter  II 
Teachers 

I.  Qualification  and  Certification  of 

Teachers 79 

1.  General  situation  and  tendencies.  . . 79 

2.  Special  teachers 80 

II.  Training  of  Teachers 81 

1.  Introductory., 81 

2.  Seminaries — establishment  and  work  83 

III.  Teachers’  Official  Titles 85 

1.  In  the  several  schools — significance.  85 

IV.  Teachers’  Tenure  of  Office 86 

1.  Positions — Permanent  and  tempor- 
ary  87 

2.  Comparisons  with  conditions  in 

America 89 

3.  Changes  in  teaching  staff  (with 

tables) 89 

V.  Teachers’  Salaries 91 

1.  General  statement 91 

2.  Additional  benefits 92 

3.  Schedules  (with  tables) 94 


CONTENTS 


Chapter  III 

Courses  of  Study  in  State  Schools 

I.  Introductory — Rise,  development,  and 

present  form  of  the  curriculum..  96 

1 . Origin  and  evolution  of  the  course  of 

study 96 

a.  The  early  schools;  their  work,  in- 

fluence, and  development  in  Nor- 
way  97 

2.  Three  sections  of  schools 99 

II.  The  Primary  School 101 

1.  Rural  and  city 101 

2.  Schedules  of  courses 104 

a.  Comparisons 106 

b.  Subjects  emphasized 107 

3.  Outline  of  subjects  of  instruction. ...  108 

a.  Religion 108 

b.  Norwegian 118 

c.  Mathematics 125 

d.  Geography 129 

e.  History 134 

f.  Nature  study 139 

g.  Other  subjects : writing  and  draw- 

ing, vocal  music,  manual  training, 
gymnastics 146 

III.  The  Middle  School 149 

1.  Its  standard,  aim,  and  method 149 

2.  Outline  of  subjects  of  instruction. . . . 151 


CONTENTS 


IV.  The  Gymnasium 162 

1.  Outline  of  subjects  of  instruction.  . . 162 

Chapter  IV 

Interpretative  Conclusions 

1 . The  people  and  their  ideals 181 

2.  Facilities  for  education 184 

8.  Directing  authority  and  management  of 

schools 187 

4.  Teachers’  training 191 

5 . The  teacher’s  life 195 

6.  The  curriculum 197 

a.  Religious  instruction  and  education. . . . 198 

b.  The  classics 201 

c.  Physical  culture 204 

d.  Vocal  music 206 

7.  Lines  of  instruction  in  the  gymnasium 207 

8.  Co-education 210 

9.  The  school  year 214 

10.  School  lunches 215 

11.  Comparative  attainments 217 

12.  Methods  of  instruction 220 

13.  Continuity  of  effort 222 

Bibliography 225 

Index 229 


THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM 
OF  NORWAY 


Chapter  I 

BACKGROUND  AND  ORGANIZATION 


I.  INTRODUCTION 

THE  history  of  mankind  in  Norway  covers  a 
period  of  at  least  five  thousand  years  and 
includes  a great  variety  of  interesting  inci- 
dents and  conditions.  The  accounts  of  the 
earlier  ages  may  be  read  only  in  archaeological  forma- 
tions, while  for  more  recent  times,  these  silent  records 
are  supplemented  and  enriched  by  traditions.  All 
such  accounts  are  of  deep  interest  and  significance  but 
only  in  a measure  reliable.  We  have  no  really  authen- 
tic information  regarding  Norway’s  political  history 
until  the  reign  of  Harald  the  Fair  Haired  (8G0-930). 
We  do  know,  however,  that,  previous  to  his  establish- 
ment of  the  sovereign  state  of  Norway  in  872,  the 
people  had  known  only  the  rule  of  numerous  petty, 
warring  earls  and  kings.  Besides  this,  the  entire 
country  had  been  subjected  to  the  devastations  of  the 
vikings.  These  sea  robbers  were  the  terror  of  all  the 
coast  countries  in  western  Europe  and  the  British  Isles 


19 


20  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


until  about  the  year  900  when  sea  robbery  at  home 
was  abolished,  and  the  Norsemen  became  colonizers, 
migrating  to  surrounding  islands,  the  west  and  south 
of  Europe,  and  probably  America.  Now  when  piracy 
began  to  decline  the  people  rose  to  a higher  plane  of 
living,  and  the  prosperity  attained  through  peace  and 
industry  was  found  to  be  the  more  desirable.  A long 
succession  of  kings,  some  good  and  some  evil,  ruled  the 
land.  Paganism  was  gradually  overcome,  and  about 
the  year  1,000  Christianity  was  established. 

From  this  time  on,  for  several  centuries,  the  country 
experienced  only  moderate  visible  progress  though 
large  gains  were  made  in  potential  powers.  In  1381, 
Norway  entered  into  a union  with  Denmark  and  re- 
mained in  large  measure  subject  to  her  power  until 
1814.  This  period  of  more  than  four  hundred  years 
was  a season  of  little  good  and  of  great  hardships  to 
the  people.  Their  development  received  little  atten- 
tion, the  resources  of  the  country  and  the  cause  of 
education  were  neglected,  and  the  masses  were  not 
recognized  in  a way  that  would  tend  to  their  enlighten- 
ment and  progress.  The  entire  nation  suffered  from 
international  difficulties  as  well  as  from  oppression  at 
home.  Conditions  remained  unimproved  and  the 
latent  powers  of  the  people,  which  had  been  accumulat- 
ing for  generations,  found  no  adequate  means  for  ex- 
pression. 

When  in  1814  the  treaty  of  Kiel,  sanctioned  by  the 
European  powers,  forced  Norway  into  an  unwilling 
union  with  Sweden,  the  Norwegians  revolted;  and,  in 
their  attempt  to  liberate  themselves,  adopted  a con- 


BACKGROUND  AND  ORGANIZATION  21 


stitution  for  their  government.*  Their  revolt  created 
ill  feelings  on  the  part  of  the  Swedes  while  the  demands 
for  complete  sovereignty  by  Sweden  were  resented  by 
the  Norwegians.  The  adoption  of  this  constitution  by 
the  people  of  Norway  and  their  standing  so  tenaciously 
for  its  recognition  are  manifestations  of  the  spirit  which 
had  been  developing  among  them  for  centuries.  They 
believed  that  they  were  being  imposed  upon  and  stood 
firm  for  their  rights.  They  had  felt  the  crushing  hand 
of  foreign  rule,  they  had  observed  the  benefits  of  inde- 
pendence, they  had  developed  confidence  in  their  own 
powers,  and  now  they  were  converted  to  the  idea  that 
the  time  for  home  rule  was  upon  them.  Civil  liberty 
was  their  dream.  State  rights  came  to  be  demanded. 
Their  time  to  act  in  a decisive  manner  had  come.  The 
people  had  grown  into  a nation  deserving  and  in  need  of 
larger  powers,  and  their  best  advancement  was  in  great 
measure  dependent  upon  the  exercise  of  these  powers. 
Conditions  then  justified  their  demands  and  Sweden, 
appreciating  the  situation,  yielded,  acknowledged  the 
independence  of  Norway,  and  agreed  to  govern  in 
accordance  with  the  newly  adopted  constitution.  On 
the  other  hand,  Norway  acceded  to  the  demands  of 
Sweden  in  accepting  the  King  of  Sweden  as  theirs  also. 

Now  for  nearly  one  hundred  years  this  union  was 
maintained.  Comparative  peace  and  prosperity  pre- 
vailed and  the  outlook  seemed  favorable  for  both 
nations.  Sweden  profited  because  of  the  new  relations, 
and  Norway  gained  in  strength  and  power  through  her 

*The  Constitution  ( Grundlov ) adopted  at  Eidsvold,  Norway, 
May  17,  1814. 


22  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


experience  in  individual  initiative  and  governmental 
duties  generally.  While  the  relations  between  the  two 
countries  were  in  the  main  friendly,  on  various  occasions 
Norway  felt  that  her  rights  were  not  always  respected. 
The  people  craved  larger  privileges,  more  recognition 
among  the  nations  of  the  world,  and  the  exercise  of 
greater  authority.  The  functioning  of  capacities  that 
had  long  lain  dormant  revealed  to  her  the  powers  that 
were  still  latent.  Norway  became  eager  for  absolute 
independence  and  these  feelings  rose  to  larger  and 
larger  proportions  until  desires  became  demands.  All 
the  people  were  ready  and  offered  their  services,  their 
fortunes  (whether  large  or  scant),  and  their  lives  in  the 
cause  of  freedom.  Finally,  formally,  and  without 
bloodshed,  the  bonds  uniting  the  two  countries  were 
severed  in  1905  and  Norway  became  an  independent 
nation. 

Having  briefly  sketched  the  history  of  the  country 
let  us  now  turn  our  attention  to  its  geography.  Nor- 
way, as  we  all  know,  lies  in  the  northwestern  part  of 
Europe,  and  measures  over  one  thousand  one  hundred 
miles  from  north  to  south  and  from  two  hundred  to 
nearly  five  hundred  miles  from  east  to  west.  Politi- 
cally it  is  divided  into  eighteen  counties  ( Amter ) and 
the  cities  of  Christiania  and  Bergen.  These  counties 
are  subdivided  into  six  hundred  sixty-six  town- 
ships or  communes  ( Kommuner ) which  are  again 
divided  into  school  districts  or  circles  (. Kredser ) num- 
bering in  all  five  thousand  nine  hundred  seventy.* 

The  area  is  approximately  one  hundred  and  twenty- 

*Statistics  for  1907 — the  last  published. 


BACKGROUND  AND  ORGANIZATION  23 


five  thousand  square  miles.  Nearly  all  of  it  is  made  up 
of  mountains  which  have  no  regularity  in  distribution, 
a large  portion  of  them  being  merely  heaps  of  barren 
rock  thrown  up  in  conglomerate  masses.  The  valleys 
are  as  numerous  and  irregular  as  the  mountains.  In 
them  are  lakes,  rivers,  and  waterfalls,  their  waters  pure 
and  clear  as  crystal.  The  lakes  differ  greatly  in  out- 
line and  size.  The  rivers  in  their  windings  dash  furi- 
ously through  precipitous,  rugged,  rocky  channels,  or 
glide  murmuringly  through  quiet  valleys  until  they 
reach  the  fjords  which  appear  like  huge  arms  of  the  sea, 
reaching  deep  into  the  earth  and  extending  far  inland. 
The  waterfalls  vary  from  mere  threads  tinkling  into 
tiny  pools  to  great  torrents  gushing  over  dizzy  preci- 
pices. Viewed  in  combination  these  features  present 
an  infinite  variety  of  exquisitely  beautiful  scenes. 

The  climate  of  Norway  is  greatly  diversified  owing 
to  the  wide  range  in  latitude  and  the  influence  of  the 
Gulf  stream.  In  the  northern  part  and  on  the  highest 
mountains  there  are  vast  fields  of  snow  during  the 
entire  year,  while  in  some  of  the  sheltered  portions 
along  the  western  coast,  the  climate  is  well  adapted  to 
the  cultivation  of  some  of  the  tropical  plants.  It  is, 
of  course,  essential  that  all  plants  that  are  cultivated 
be  of  rapid  growth  and  of  quick  maturity,  since  their 
seasons  are  quite  short.  The  atmospheric  conditions 
are  excelled  nowhere.  Few  locations  on  the  earth 
enjoy  such  freshness  or  provide  so  much  mental  and 
physical  invigoration.  Just  the  joy  of  living  is  more 
than  recompense  for  all  one’s  expense  and  trouble  in 
going  for  a season  into  this  summer  home  of  nature. 


24  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


Being  situated  so  far  to  the  north  the  days  of  sum- 
mer are  very  long  while  those  of  winter  are  extremely 
short.  This  is  noticeable  even  in  the  southern  part  of 
the  country,  and  as  one  goes  farther  north  it  is  more 
and  more  striking  until  upon  reaching  the  arctic  circle 
the  summer  traveler  has  the  unique  experience  of  see- 
ing the  sun  at  midnight.  It  is  visible  for  weeks  or 
months  at  a time,  according  to  whether  one  is  near  the 
circle  or  farther  toward  the  pole.  For  corresponding 
periods  during  the  winter  seasons  the  sun  does  not  ap- 
pear at  all.  It  should  not  be  inferred  that  these  sun- 
less days  are  intensely  dark  and  gloomy.  On  the  con- 
trary, they,  as  well  as  the  midnight  sun,  have  fascina- 
tions peculiar  to  themselves  and  are  of  deep  interest, 
especially  to  the  novice  in  that  latitude.  The  glitter 
of  the  stars,  the  glow  of  the  moon,  and  the  palpitating 
brilliance  of  the  northern  lights,  combine  with  the 
light  reflected  from  the  vast  snow  fields  and  compensate 
in  part  for  the  absence  of  the  direct  rays  from  the  sun. 

The  industries  and  occupations  of  the  Norwegians 
are  dependent  in  large  measure  upon  environing  con- 
ditions. Nearly  one-fourtli  of  the  country  is  covered 
with  a heavy  growth  of  timber;  hence,  lumbering  affords 
a large  part  of  the  most  profitable  employment.  Much 
of  the  mountainous  land  can  be  used  only  for  pasturage 
and,  as  a result,  dairying  claims  considerable  attention. 
Only  a very  small  portion  of  the  area  (about  four  per 
cent)  is  suitable  for  agriculture  and  owing  to  this 
limitation  of  opportunity,  comparatively  few  of  the 
people  are  farmers.  Their  numerous  fisheries  supply 
cargoes,  and  train  loads  of  fresh  and  cured  fish  to  the 


BACKGROUND  AND  ORGANIZATION  25 


markets  of  the  world.  Fishing  is,  in  fact,  one  of  the 
most  important  industries,  and  a large  percentage  of 
the  wage  earners  of  the  country  engage  in  it.  Since 
the  bulk  of  their  travel  and  transportation  is  by  water, 
a great  many  become  sailors.  A certain  amount  of 
manufacturing  also  is  done,  and  this  provides  another 
means  of  earning  a livelihood.  The  fact  that  nearly 
all  of  the  people  are  gathered  into  cities,  towns,  and 
settlements  along  the  coast,  is  explained  by  a con- 
sideration of  the  activities  and  conditions  herein  set 
forth. 

The  people  of  Norway  are  large  of  stature,  vigorous, 
and  alert  in  mind  and  body.  They  have  ever  been  un- 
daunted in  their  efforts  to  overcome  the  great,  natural 
barriers  to  progress  and  to  secure  what  they  believed 
would  be  for  their  well-being.  Toiling  patiently  and 
persistently,  suffering  hardships  on  land  and  perils  at 
sea,  they  have  developed  the  well-known  characteristics 
of  their  sturdy  race.  The  long,  rigorous  winters  taught 
the  people  to  provide  amply  for  the  needs  of  the  future, 
and  they  learned  also  the  economy  of  making  every  en- 
deavor count  for  permanency.  It  has  been  and  is 
still  their  aim  and  intent  to  so  direct  their  efforts  that 
their  citizens  may  experience  and  enjoy  not  only  in  the 
present  the  best  conditions  made  possible  by  the  world ’s 
highest  attainments,  but  that  later  generations  also 
may  reap  valuable  benefits  therefrom.  They  realize 
that  it  is  easily  possible  for  today’s  provisions  to  supply 
the  best  for  the  present,  and  at  the  same  time  to  bless 
tomorrow  and  the  next  day  and  all  the  coming  years. 

The  Norwegians  are  as  democratic  in  mind  and 


26  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


disposition  as  any  people  of  the  earth.  They  demand 
that  the  masses  shall  receive  whatever  benefit  may 
come  from  prosperity  at  home,  from  their  relations 
with  other  nations,  or  from  legislation.  They  advo- 
cate further  that  right  now  is  the  time  to  increase  op- 
portunities, to  multiply  privileges,  to  raise  standards  of 
living,  and  to  insure  through  conservative  action  a 
substantial  basis  on  which  the  coming  generations  may 
safely  build.  In  accord  with  their  aims  and  ideals 
they  study  the  questions  of  education,  labor  and  capital, 
and  many  others  of  vital  interest  to  the  people.  They 
seek  out  sources,  eliminating  the  undesirable  and  cul- 
tivating those  of  favorable  growth  and  fruitage.  Rec- 
ognizing their  own  resourcefulness  and  ability,  the 
Norsemen  strive  to  gain  for  themselves  and  for  their 
descendants  material  prosperity  and  true  culture. 
To  these  ends  they  foster  educational  advantages  for 
all,  the  development  of  the  arts  and  sciences,  and  the 
elevation  of  labor. 

Educationally,  they  have  ever  been  desirous  of  pro- 
viding the  best  possible  advantages.  During  the  latter 
part  of  the  nineteenth  century  and  the  few  years  of  the 
present  one,  they  have  been  in  a position  to  put  into 
execution  a number  of  advance  ideas  which  they  have 
done  without  hesitation.  Being  observant  of  what 
other  nations  provide  they  have  been  ready  to  select 
from  various  sources  whatever  good  they  found,  to 
eliminate  any  undesirable  features  which  revealed 
themselves,  and  to  strengthen  the  weaker  points. 
Though  they  have  been  forced  by  conditions  to  assume 
and  maintain  a conservative  attitude  toward  every 


BACKGROUND  AND  ORGANIZATION  27 


new  project  or  attempt  at  reform,  they  have  been  also 
too  democratic  to  permit  tradition  or  precedent  to 
bind  them  down  or  to  hinder  them  in  making  changes 
in  their  school  system,  which  they  were  convinced 
by  experience  or  study  would  be  for  their  good.  In 
harmony  with  this  they  have  been  eager  to  make  re- 
visions where  necessary;  to  introduce  new  features, 
which  had  been  tested  at  home  or  abroad  and  found 
successful;  and  to  cast  aside  relics  of  the  past,  unneces- 
sary phases  of  work,  and  those  things  which  might  be 
supplanted  by  materials  of  superior  advantage  or 
value  to  the  people  served.  They  have  become 
habituated  to  examining  the  new  from  every  conceiv- 
able viewpoint,  to  finding  its  foundations,  to  testing 
its  values,  and  to  weighing  its  effects.  When  a thing 
has  been  thoroughly  studied  it  is  accepted  or  rejected 
according  to  whether  it  is  adjudged  desirable  or  un- 
desirable for  their  use  under  existing  conditions.  In 
their  effort  to  answer  the  demands  of  the  people  and  to 
supply  their  needs,  schools  have  been  established  ac- 
cording to  local  requirements.  That  is  to  say,  every 
community  enjoys  school  advantages,  and  every  child 
in  the  entire  state  is  privileged  to  receive  instruction 
for  a certain  number  of  weeks  each  year  at  the  expense 
of  the  state.  All  children  are  required  to  attend  the 
schools  of  the  state  at  least  twelve  weeks  each  year  for 
seven  years,  or  to  receive  instruction  elsewhere  which 
is  equivalent  to  the  amount  required.  In  the  more 
populous  places  higher  schools  also  are  provided  for 
those  who  desire  to  take  advantage  of  the  opportuni- 
ties afforded  in  them. 


£8  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


II.  DIFFERENTIATION  OF  SCHOOLS. 

It  was  early  recognized  by  the  Norwegians  that 
through  the  means  of  education,  better  than  any  other 
way,  they  could  develop  a people  qualified  to  pursue 
the  arts,  to  cultivate  the  sciences,  to  appreciate  and  en- 
joy the  highest  culture,  and  to  maintain  and  develop 
.their  noblest  ideals  of  citizenship  and  richest  concep- 
tions of  statehood.  Having  these  objects  in  mind 
they  endeavored  to  establish  schools  of  instruction 
and  training  along  every  legitimate  line.  Beginning 
with  the  most  essential  they  worked  unceasingly,  pro- 
viding additional  worthy  kinds  of  instruction  as  rapidly 
as  possible,  until  their  efforts  resulted  in  their  present 
school  system. 

Perhaps  the  most  important  feature  of  their  work 
was  the  establishment  of  primary  schools,  which  fur- 
nish general  education.  These  schools  provide  seven 
years  of  elementary  instruction  for  children  between 
the  ages  of  seven  and  fourteen  years,  and  are  literally 
the  people’s  schools  (Folkeskoler) . The  law  requires 
that  pupils  must  be  regular  in  attendance,  and  that 
parents,  who  fail  to  have  their  children  in  school  in 
harmony  with  the  provisions  of  the  law,  be  fined  ac- 
cording to  the  seriousness  and  extent  of  the  offense. 
It  is  further  provided  that  these  schools  shall  be  in 
operation  for  at  least  twelve  weeks  in  the  year,  and  that 
this  time  may  be  extended  according  to  local  demands 
or  needs.  As  a matter  of  fact,  nearly  all  of  them  in 
the  cities  and  many  of  them  in  the  country  operate 
forty  weeks  per  year.  As  a consequence  of  liberal 


BACKGROUND  AND  ORGANIZATION  29 


provisions  and  enforced  regulations,  Norway  has 
achieved  an  eminent  place  educationally  among  the 
nations  of  the  world. 

In  the  rural  sections  primary  schools  are  held  in 
comfortable,  well  equipped,  and  conveniently  located 
schoolhouses  and  are  taught  by  competent  teachers 
who  live  near  by  in  homes  provided  for  them.  In  a 
few  remote,  rugged  sections  of  the  country,  where 
children  are  few  and  scattering  or  where  locations 
accessible  to  all  cannot  be  found,  they  have  no  fixed 
schools,  but  instead  what  are  termed  ambulatory 
schools  (Omgangskoler) . There  are  no  schoolhouses 
in  these  districts  but  the  officials  designate  certain 
houses*  as  the  places  where  children  go  at  stated  times 
to  receive  instruction.  The  teacher  meets  the  children 
of  the  neighborhood  in  a given  home  and  teaches  them 
for  a specified  time,  passes  to  the  next  designated  place, 
and  continues  until  his  rounds  are  completed.  Form- 
erly, a very  large  number  of  these  schools  existed,  but 
as  roadways  were  extended  or  improved  and  the  peo- 
ple became  able  to  erect  and  maintain  schoolhouses, 
the  demand  for  ambulatory  schools  decreased  until 
now  nearly  all  of  them  are  supplanted  by  fixed  schools. 
In  1837,  ninety-two  per  cent  of  the  children  attending 
school  in  the  country  were  taught  in  ambulatory  schools, 
while  in  1907  this  was  the  case  with  less  than  one  per 
cent  of  them. 

In  all  the  cities  and  towns  excellent  educational  ad- 

*The  law  requires  the  opening  of  residences  having  sufficient 
room  for  the  accommodation  of  these  groups  of  pupils  for  instruc- 
tional purposes.  Law  for  Rural  Schools,  Sec.  41. 


30  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


vantages  are  provided.  Usually  their  school  year  con- 
sists of  forty  weeks  of  six  days  each.  Every  provision 
is  made  for  the  welfare  of  the  children;  excellent  in- 
structors are  secured,  and  the  equipment  for  teaching 
purposes  is  of  the  best  procurable.  Furthermore,  no 
pains  are  spared  in  guarding  the  children  from  physical 
discomfort  and  immoral  conditions  or  associations. 

Simultaneously  with  the  development  of  the  elemen- 
tary schools  secondary  education  moved  along  advance 
lines.  In  1814,  when  Norway  became  an  independent 
state  there  were  but  four  of  the  higher  classical  ( laerde ) 
schools  within  her  borders.  These  were  the  historic 
cathedral  schools  ( Kathedralskoler ) which  had  been 
established  for  centuries.  As  time  passed,  other  second- 
ary schools  were  organized.  Higher  education  was  re- 
organized in  1869  and  again  in  1896,  when  by  act  of  the 
Storthing  secondary  education  was  made  to  include 
the  middle  school  and  the  gymnasium.  The  enact- 
ment defines  these  schools  and  states  their  aim  as  fol- 
lows: “The  middle  school  is  a school  for  children, 

which,  in  union  with  the  primary  school,  gives  its  pupils 
a complete,  thorough,  general  education,  adapted 
to  the  receptivity  of  childhood.  The  gymnasium  is  a 
school  for  young  people,  which  on  the  foundation  of  the 
middle  school,  leads  on  to  a complete,  higher,  general 
education,  which  may  also  serve  as  a basis  for  scientific 
studies.  Both  middle  school  and  gymnasium  shall 
contribute  to  the  religious  and  moral  training  of  the 
pupils,  and  it  should  also  be  their  common  aim  to  de- 
velop the  pupils  both  mentally  and  physically  into 


BACKGROUND  AND  ORGANIZATION  31 


competent  young  people.”*  The  act  requires  that 
the  middle  school  shall  be  no  longer  than  four  years, 
and  that  the  gymnasial  courses  shall  be  of  three  years 5 
duration. 

The  gymnasia  of  Norway  take  up  the  work  where 
the  middle  schools  leave  off,  and  provide  three  years  of 
instruction  which  concludes  with  the  examen  artium. 
The  passing  of  this  examination  entitles  the  individual 
to  become  a student  in  the  university.  Previous  to 
the  time  of  entering  the  gymnasium  the  subjects  of 
instruction  are  uniform  for  all;  here  they  branch  into 
two  or  three  lines,  any  one  of  which  may  be  selected  by 
the  pupil  and  followed  to  its  completion.  The  main 
divisions  of  the  work  are  represented  in  the  names  of 
the  courses — the  Real  and  the  Linguistic-Historical. 
The  latter  of  these  is  again  divided  in  some  schools, 
one  of  its  two  lines  including  Latin.  The  Real  course 
of  instruction  is  largely  scientific  while  the  Linguistic- 
Historical,  true  to  its  name,  embodies  a large  amount 
of  language  and  history.  In  case  the  course  including 
Latin  is  offered,  Latin  replaces  some  of  the  work  in 
modern  languages  and  history. 

The  middle  school,  then,  is  the  second  step  in  the 
educational  ladder  and  builds  upon  the  work  previously 
done  in  the  primary  school.  No  middle  school  is 
privileged  to  include  work  lower  down  than  the  sixth 
grade.  In  other  words,  the  primary  schools  are  the 
only  ones  which  are  authorized  to  present  the  work  of 
the  first  five  grades  or  years  of  school  instruction. 
The  courses  of  study  are  so  arranged  that  a child  may 

*Law  for  Higher  State  Schools,  Sec.  2. 


32  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


pass  from  the  primary  school  after  completing  the 
fifth  grade  and  enter  directly  upon  the  studies  in  the 
regular  four  year  course  of  the  middle  school.  On  the 
other  hand  a pupil  may  continue  in  the  primary  school 
until  its  completion — seven  years — and  then  enter  a 
middle  school  and  finish  its  requirements  in  three  years . 
While  nearly  all  middle  schools  present  a four  year 
course  there  are  a few  which  offer  only  three  years  of 
instruction.  In  order  to  enter  these  latter  schools  the 
child  must  have  finished  the  seven  years  of  instruction 
in  the  primary  schools.  Middle  schools  are  under  the 
inspection  of  state  officials  and  a uniform  standard  of 
work  is  required  of  all  of  them.  The  middle  school 
examination  which  marks  the  completion  of  the  middle 
school  course  is  exactly  the  same  for  all  pupils  in  the 
state.  In  any  given  year  all  who  take  the  examina- 
tions write  on  exactly  the  same  questions  on  a specified 
hour  of  a certain  day. 

The  Royal  Frederik  University,  established  by  King 
Frederik  in  1811,  furnishes  the  summit  of  educational 
endeavor.  Its  five  faculties — (1)  theology,  (2)  law, 
(3)  medicine,  (4)  mathematics  and  science,  and  (5) 
history  and  philosophy — represent  the  best  products 
of  the  country  and  maintain  standards  of  efficiency 
paralleling  the  achievements  of  the  day.  Besides 
the  five  faculties  already  mentioned  there  are  (1)  The 
Practical  Theological  Seminary  for  the  training  of 
ministers  and  (2)  The  Pedagogical  Seminary  (affiliated) 
for  special  training  of  teachers.  Through  the  endeavors 
of  the  faculties  and  seminaries  enumerated,  the  neces- 
sary professions,  scientific  organizations,  and  philosophic 


BACKGROUND  AND  ORGANIZATION  33 


societies  are  supplied  with  men  of  eminent  qualifica- 
tions. The  state  also  is  supplied  from  the  same  source 
with  individuals  capable  of  attending  to  the  affairs  of 
state  in  a dignified  and  competent  manner. 

To  aid  prospective  teachers  and  to  maintain  high 
professional  standards,  Norway  early  established  a 
Teachers’  Seminary  in  each  of  its  six  dioceses  ( Stifter ). 
Having  made  this  ample  provision  for  the  training  of 
teachers,  they  were  in  a position  to  require  a certain 
amount  of  professional  preparation  of  all  candidates 
for  appointment  to  teaching  positions.  Adherence  to 
this  laudable  principle  has  saved  the  state  from  an  over- 
flow of  incompetent  instructors.  While  requirements 
were  very  low  for  a long  time,  the  increasing  supply  of 
qualified  candidates  for  positions  warranted  successive 
shif tings  of  them  to  higher  and  higher  standards.  At 
present,  the  teachers  of  Norway,  as  a body,  rank  among 
the  best  in  educational  equipment,  professional  train- 
ing, and  morality. 

Technical,  agricultural,  military,  and  naval  schools 
have  been  established  in  order  to  keep  pace  with  the 
world’s  developments  along  these  lines.  The  technical 
school  in  Trondhjem  opened  in  1910,  sets  the  require- 
ments for  admission  as  high  as  those  at  the  university. 
Its  work  promises  to  be  of  unquestioned  quality  and 
its  prospects  are  very  bright.  The  students  at  this 
school  come  chiefly  from  the  scientific  course  offered 
in  the  gymnasia  or  from  the  several  preparatory  tech- 
nical schools  of  Norway.  There  are  many  of  these 
lower  technical  schools  doing  excellent  work  and  some 
of  them  are  modeled  after  American  schools.  The  work 


34  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


of  the  agricultural  college  and  of  the  military  and  naval 
schools  is  more  or  less  technical  along  their  respective 
lines  and  meets  certain  requirements  not  elsewhere 
provided  for.  When  one  notes  the  variety  of  schools 
maintained  by  the  Norwegian  state,  it  is  evident  that 
it  is  the  intent  to  provide  for  its  citizens  a very  wide 
range  of  educational  advantages,  and  at  the  same  time 
to  develop  the  capacities  of  young  people  until  they  are 
able  to  perform  the  offices  of  state  and  nation. 

III.  DISTRIBUTION  OF  SCHOOLS  AND  PUPILS 

The  laws  of  Norway  are  specific  in  their  require- 
ments regarding  education,  and  the  people  are  at  hand 
to  provide  the  essential  means  for  carrying  out  the  de- 
mands. It  is  required  that  in  each  city  or  district  in 
the  entire  realm  there  shall  be  the  necessary  number  of 
schools  to  provide  instruction  for  all  children  of  school 
age.  This  is  in  answer  to  the  law  which  makes  a re- 
quirement of  a certain  minimum  amount  of  education 
of  ail  such  children. 

The  primary  schools  are  distributed  in  the  cities, 
village^  and  rural  communes  to  suit  the  convenience 
of  pupils  attending.  Other  and  higher  schools  are 
provided  where  most  needed.  As  is  true  everywhere 
the  bulk  of  work  is  done  in  the  primary  schools.  Rural 
and  city  schools  have  their  own  laws  and  government, 
and  are  admirably  adapted  to  the  needs  of  their  respec- 
tive constituencies.  As  would  be  expected,  the  rural 
schools  and  the  pupils  attending  them  far  outnumber 
those  in  the  cities  and  towns.  There  are  in  the  coun- 


BACKGROUND  AND  ORGANIZATION  35 


try  five  thousand,  nine  hundred  and  seventy  schools 
attended  by  two  hundred  seventy-five  thousand,  one 
hundred  and  fifty-five  pupils,  while  there  are  but 
sixty-one  city  school  systems  having  an  enrollment  of 
ninety  thousand,  one  hundred  and  twenty-nine  pupils.* 
It  is  seen  that  there  are  about  three  times  as  many 
pupils  in  the  rural  primary  schools  as  are  found  in  the 
city  primary  schools.  The  distribution  and  care  of  the 
city  school  pupils  are,  however,  much  larger  tasks 
than  providing  for  those  in  the  rural  sections.  In 
order  to  show  conditions  in  a given  city  we  insert  Table 
I which  indicates  the  number  of  classes  and  pupils 
in  the  several  grades  in  the  nineteen  primary  schools 
of  Christiania,  and  also  gives  the  totals  for  the  entire 
city.  Boys  and  girls  attend  the  same  school,  but  in  this 
particular  city  they  are  generally  separated  into  dif- 
ferent rooms  where  they  are  taught  by  themselves. 
The  schools  are  coeducational  but  not  generally  coin- 
structional.  As  the  table  will  show,  some  of  them  are 
coinstruction al  through  a part  of  the  course  while  only 
one  follows  this  plan  throughout  its  work. 

*Statistics  for  1907. 


Pupils  in  the  Primary  Schools  of  Christiania  in  the  month  of  April,  1908 
NUMBER  OF  CLASSES  AND  PUPILS  IN  THEM 


36  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


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BACKGROUND  AND  ORGANIZATION 


37 


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Cl. — Class. 

Pu. — Pupils. 

1. — Classes  made  up  of  children  requiring  individual  attention. 


TABLE  I — Continued 


38  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


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BACKGROUND  AND  ORGANIZATION  39 


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bchools  for  Ab- 

normals  3 39  384  256  42  640  15.6 


40  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


In  addition  to  the  special  features  in  this  table,  to 
which  we  have  already  called  attention,  it  may  be  ob- 
served that  the  total  number  of  boys’,  girls’,  and  co- 
educational classes;  the  total  number  of  boys  and  of 
girls  in  attendance  at  each  school;  and  the  average 
number  of  pupils  per  class  in  each  school  are  also  in- 
cluded. 

The  law  limits  the  number  of  pupils  in  a class  to 
thirty-five,  except  temporarily  or  in  case  of  stringency 
in  financial  conditions,  and  in  no  case  must  there  be 
more  than  forty.*  It  is  seen  in  the  table  that  the 
average  is  above  thirty-five  in  all  but  one  school,  but 
it  has  been  exceedingly  difficult  in  the  rapidly  growing 
city  of  Christiania  to  avoid  congestion  in  the  schools. 
In  only  one  of  the  nineteen  schools  does  the  general 
average  come  within  the  rule.  If  they  plead  economic 
stringency  then  the  averages  of  all  fall  within  the  limits. 

Now  a large  percentage  of  children  continue  their 
education  after  the  completion  of  the  elementary 
course.  In  1907,  there  were  nine  thousand,  eight  hun- 
dred and  ninety-five  pupils  in  the  accredited  middle 
schools,f  and  one  thousand,  five  hundred  and  ninety- 
three  in  the  gymnasia.  About  eighteen  thousand 
others  attended  non-accredited  secondary  schools  and 
those  of  still  lower  standards— evening  schools,  con- 
tinuation schools,  and  various  preparatory  schools. 
Approximately  two  thousand  were  in  technical  schools 

*Law  for  City  Schools,  Sec.  5,  as  amended  on  August  15,  1908. 

fSchools  undertaking  educational  work  of  this  character  must 
meet  specified  standards  in  course  of  study,  equipment,  teaching 
staff,  etc.,  to  have  their  work  accredited  by  the  state. 


BACKGROUND  AND  ORGANIZATION  41 


and  about  one  thousand  in  teachers’  seminaries. 
Nearly  every  town  of  any  considerable  consequence  has 
a middle  school  where  pupils  from  the  town  and  sur- 
rounding territory  may  receive  its  benefits.  The 
larger  cities  have,  in  addition  to  a liberal  supply  of 
middle  schools,  one  or  more  gymnasia,  according  to 
their  size.  The  gymnasia  draw  from  a wider  territory 
than  do  the  middle  schools  because  they  are  fewer  and 
farther  apart. 

In  addition  to  the  six  teachers’  seminaries  main- 
tained by  the  state,  there  are  four  private  ones — ten  in 
all.  Table  II  indicates  the  aggregate  attendance 
at  these  institutions  and  the  number  of  those  who 
passed  the  advanced  examinations  during  the  years 
designated. 

The  university,  of  course,  draws  its  students  from  all 
over  the  State.  It  has  an  attendance  of  one  thousand, 
three  hundred  or  more,  about  five  hundred  and  fifty 
of  whom  are  annually  enrolled  direct  from  the  gym- 
nasia. These  students  represent  the  best  products 
of  the  country  and  generally  they  work  with  earnest- 
ness and  zeal. 


42  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


TABLE  II 

Table  Giving  Attendance  at  Teachers’  Seminaries  and 
the  Number  Passing  Advanced  Examinations. 


Year. 

Attendance. 

1901-02 

755 

1902-03 

980 

1903-04 

953 

1904-05 

902 

1905-06 

955 

Totals 

Annual  Average 


Took  Examination. 


Male. 

Female. 

Total. 

204 

135 

339 

192 

129 

321 

216 

184 

400 

174 

119 

293 

208 

147 

355 

994 

714 

1,708 

199 

143 

342 

Private  schools  have  played  ai  important  role  in 
Norway.  They  have  had  a long  and  interesting  his- 
tory. A number  of  them  do  part  or  all  of  the  work 
represented  by  the  state  primary  and  secondary  schools 
and  teachers’  seminaries.  Most  of  them  are  located 
in  the  larger  cities  and  receive  recognition  and  patronage 
from  some  of  the  best  homes  in  the  land.  Their  in- 
fluence upon  education  generally  has  been  wholesome. 
The  valuable  and  attractive  features  introduced  by 
them  have  operated  like  spurs  on  those  under  state 
direction.  The  cooperative  activity  which  has  char- 
acterized the  relationship  between  the  two  kinds  of 
schools  has  resulted  in  the  betterment  of  both  and  in 
the  rapid  advancement  of  educational  ideals  and  activ- 
ities throughout  the  state. 


BACKGROUND  AND  ORGANIZATION  43 


There  are,  of  course,  some  fundamental  differences 
existing  between  them.  The  private  schools  charge 
a regular  tuition  in  every  grade  of  primary  and  sec- 
ondary work.  The  state  primary  schools  are  free  and 
the  tuition  in  its  secondary  schools  is  less  than  that 
charged  in  the  private  schools.  It  is  self-evident  that 
private  schools  are  dependent  upon  tuition  receipts 
for  both  running  expenses  and  profits,  while  the  state 
and  communal  schools  are  supported  largely  by  public 
taxation.*  Paralleling  so  nearly  the  work  of  the  state 
schools,  yet  being  more  expensive,  the  private  schools 
have  been  under  the  necessity  of  offering  certain  in- 
ducements in  order  to  secure  pupils.  They  have  been 
made  attractive  in  location,  in  buildings,  in  equipment, 
in  the  personnel  of  their  faculties,  and  in  other  ways, 
and  their  efforts  have  been  richly  rewarded  as  a rule. 

All  classes  of  schools  are  subject  to  state  regulations 
and  inspection.  Certain  definite  requirements  must 
be  met  before  a private  school  may  even  begin  to  op- 
erate, and  still  higher  standards  must  be  maintained  in 
order  for  the  work  to  be  accredited  by  the  state.  Stan- 
dards of  excellence  are  naturally  set  by  state  schools  and 
the  requirements  fixed  by  the  state  inhibit  the  starting 
of  inferior  schools  under  the  pretense  of  offering  some- 
thing “just  as  good.”  During  recent  years  some  of 
the  private  schools — those  well-known  and  respected 

* The  only  difference  between  state  and  communal  schools 
consists  in  the  fact  that  in  the  one  case  the  state  and  in  the  other 
a commune  takes  the  initial  step  in  the  establishment  of  the  school 
and  bears  the  larger  portion  of  the  burden  in  its  maintenance.  The 
work  of  the  two  is  uniform  in  every  particular.  They  are  together 
referred  to  as  state  schools  in  contrast  to  private  schools. 


44  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


because  of  the  nature  of  work  and  high  standards  of 
excellence  maintained — have  been  given  special  recog- 
nition by  the  state,  and  a few  of  them  receive  annuities. 
When  advancement  in  nature  or  improvement  in  qual- 
ity of  school  work  is  rewarded  by  increase  in  patronage 
from  the  state,  zest  is  furnished  in  the  contest  for  first 
recognition. 

Though  the  history  of  the  rise,  development  and  in- 
fluence of  the  private  schools  of  Norway,  together  with 
a discussion  of  their  present  status  and  worth,  might 
furnish  an  interesting  chapter,  it  becomes  necessary 
to  let  this  slight  mention  suffice  and  to  confine  this 
work  to  a treatise  of  the  schools  instituted  and  directed 
by  the  state.  It  may  be  added,  however,  that  the  work 
of  the  accredited  private  schools  equals  in  quality  and 
receives  the  same  recognition  as  that  done  in  state 
schools.  For  example,  all  graduates  from  the  private 
gymnasia  pass  the  same  examinations  for  artium  as 
those  who  complete  the  work  of  the  state  gymnasia 
and  enter  the  university  on  exactly  the  same  footing. 

IV.  PUPILS 

The  compulsory  school  laws  which  operate  in  Nor- 
way determine  the  age  (seven  years)  at  which  children 
shall  enter  school  and  the  regularity  of  their  attendance. 
With  this  in  mind,  it  is  readily  understood  that  as  a rule 
each  class  marches  steadily  forward,  one  grade  each 
year,  until  the  completion  of  the  school  life.  As  a conse- 
quence there  is  but  little  variation  in  the  ages  of  pupils 
doing  the  work  of  any  certain  grade,  and  the  proportion 


Table  showing  the  age  of  pupils  on  April  30,  1908,  in  the  several  grades,  also  the 
number  in  each  Grade  and  relation  to  normal  age. 


BACKGROUND  AND  ORGANIZATION  45 


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Primary  schools  of  Kristiana  exclusive  of  schools  for  abnormal  children. 
Classes  requiring  special  individual  attention. 


46  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


of  pupils  of  normal  age  in  the  several  grades  is  very 
large.  In  order  to  illustrate  definitely,  a concrete 
situation  is  presented  in  Table  III,  which  shows  the 
exact  conditions  existing  at  a certain  time  in  one  of  their 
representative  cities. 

This  table  speaks  for  itself  and  needs  no  explanation. 
It  is  worthy  of  note,  however,  that  in  comparatively 
few  instances  do  the  ages  vary  more  than  two  or  three 
years,  and  that  six  years  is  the  widest  difference  in  age 
to  be  found  among  all  the  pupils  of  any  given  grade  of 
work.  Furthermore,  we  call  attention  to  the  fact  that 
those  above  normal  age  in  no  year  aggregated  as  much 
as  ten  per  cent  of  the  entire  number  in  attendance. 
10.1  per  cent  represents  the  entire  number  outside 
the  normal  age — those  above  plus  those  below — for 
the  year  1908.  During  the  three  former  years  the 
percentage  was  still  smaller.  The  reduction  in  num- 
bers of  pupils  in  the  sixth  and  seventh  grades  is  due  in 
large  part  to  the  fact  that  so  many  pass  from  the  fifth 
grade  into  the  middle  school. 

The  same  conditions  of  uniformity  exist  in  the  sec- 
ondary schools.  Having  entered  at  the  age  of  seven 
and  having  spent  five  or  more  years  in  the  primary 
school,  the  pupils  upon  entrance  to  the  middle  school 
are  generally  twelve  or  more  years  old.  In  some  middle 
schools  the  average  age  of  those  entering  will  at  times 
be  less  than  twelve  years.  This  latter  condition  is 
usually  due  to  some  local  situation  or  rule  regarding 
age  at  entrance  upon  school  work.  In  order  to  follow 
the  age  question  to  nearer  its  limits  we  will  present 
Table  IV. 


BACKGROUND  AND  ORGANIZATION  47 


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48  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


Attention  is  called  to  the  step  from  the  last  year  in 
the  middle  school  to  the  first  year  in  the  gymnasium. 
In  several  instances  there  is  considerably  less  than  a 
year  of  difference  in  age.  This  is  but  another  illustra- 
tion of  the  tendencies  of  the  sifting  that  goes  on  in  the 
natural  process  of  selecting  the  fittest.  Those  of  keen- 
est intellect  are  the  ones  who  reach  a specific  require- 
ment in  least  time  and  then  proceed  in  the  pursuit  of 
advance  education.  The  ones  sifted  out  are  more  gen- 
erally those  whose  advance  has  been  more  difficult,  or 
those  who  have  lagged  behind  others  of  their  own  age. 
The  absence  of  these  tends  to  lower  the  average  age 
in  the  succeeding  grade.  Similar  conditions  in  em- 
phasized form  are  in  evidence  when  we  study  the  ages 
of  those  who  enter  the  university  from  year  to  year. 
While  the  ages  of  those  just  entering  the  third  and  final 
year  of  the  gymnasium  are  on  the  average  more  than 
eighteen,  the  ones  who  enter  the  university  the  follow- 
ing year  in  September  average  nineteen  years  of  age  or 
a little  less. 

In  addition  to  the  tables  showing  the  ages  of  pupils 
throughout  the  several  grades  of  preparatory  and  sec- 
ondary education,  the  following  one  is  inserted  to  show 
the  average  age  of  those  in  attendance  at  four  of  the 
teachers’  seminaries.  The  advance  in  age  with  ad- 
vance of  grade  is  not  as  regular  here  as  in  the  other 
schools. 


BACKGROUND  AND  ORGANIZATION  49 


TABLE  V 

Table  Showing  Age  of  Pupils  in  the  Teachers’  Semi- 
naries at  the  Beginning  of  the  Year,  1906-7. 

Average  age*  in  grades. 


i. 

II. 

III. 

Holmestrand 

19-7 

21-3 

22-1 

Levanger 

20 

19-8 

21-4 

Hamar 

19-2 

20-2 

21-7 

Stord 

19-6 

19-11 

21 

* Age  in  years  and  months. 


There  is  not  as  close  correspondence  between  age 
or  grade  and  scholarship  in  the  seminaries  as  we  find 
in  the  other  schools.  The  greater  variation  is  due  to 
several  causes,  among  them  are  the  following:  (1) 

The  law  requires  that  a teacher  must  be  at  least  twenty 
years  of  age.*  (2)  The  previous  education  of  those 
in  attendance  varies  greatly.  Many  are  desirous  of 
getting  as  thorough  and  complete  preparation  as  their 
circumstances  admit,  while  others  are  seemingly  anx- 
ious to  enter  on  the  lowest  standard  admissible.  (3) 
Teachers  who  are  eager  to  improve  their  qualifications 
frequently  return  to  the  seminary  after  a few  years  of 
teaching  experience  in  order  to  complete  the  course  and 
prepare  for  the  better  class  of  positions. 

Comparisons  between  the  educational  equipment  of 
the  American  youth  and  that  of  his  Norwegian  cousin 

* Law  for  City  Schools,  Sec.  28  as  revised  in  1908.  Law  for 
Rural  Schools,  Sec.  26  as  revised  in  1908. 


50  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


at  any  given  age  are  exceedingly  difficult  to  make.  We 
have  not  yet  established  any  specific  units  or  norms 
by  which  education  may  be  measured.  We  can  make 
neither  definite  nor  satisfactory  quantitative  or  qualita- 
tive measurements  of  accomplishment.  However,  a 
careful  analysis  of  the  respective  courses  of  study,  the 
qualification  of  teachers,  and  plans  of  work,  supported 
by  the  testimony  of  those  who  have  been  teachers  in 
both  countries,  seems  to  warrant  the  statement  that 
the  completion  of  the  gymnasial  course  of  study  in 
Norway  is  comparable  to  the  completion  of  the  sopho- 
more year  of  work  in  our  American  colleges  and  uni- 
versities, The  average  age  of  students  is  about  the 
same  in  both  instances. 

The  American  children  spend  a less  portion  of  the 
year  in  school  than  do  the  children  in  Norway.  While 
in  our  schools  we  generally  have  but  thirty-six  weeks  of 
five  days  each  in  a year,  inclusive  of  all  regular  and  spec- 
ial holidays,  the  schools  of  Norway  are  in  operation 
forty  weeks  of  six  days  each,  exclusive  of  holidays. 
Leaving  out  any  consideration  of  holidays,  the  American 
school  year  usually  amounts  to  one  hundred  eighty 
days,  while  in  Norway  they  have  two  hundred  and  forty 
days  of  school.  In  other  words,  eight  years  of  primary 
school  and  four  years  of  high  school  in  America  repre- 
sent only  three-fourths  as  many  days  of  instruction  and 
study  as  are  included  in  five  years  of  primary  school, 
four  years  of  middle  school,  and  three  years  of  gymna- 
sium in  Norway.  That  is  to  say,  to  provide  the  same 
number  of  days  of  instruction  it  would  take  sixteen 
school  years  in  America  to  equal  twelve  in  Norway. 


BACKGROUND  AND  ORGANIZATION  51 


The  specialization  which  characterizes  the  work  of 
the  students  upon  entrance  to  the  Norwegian  university 
brings  their  study  within  much  narrower  limits  than 
that  of  our  ordinary  juniors  in  college.  Their  general 
cultural  education  concludes  with  the  taking  of  artium 
while  ours  usually  continues  throughout  the  liberal 
arts  course  in  college  or  until  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of 
Arts  has  been  received.  A certain  amount  of  special- 
ization is  common  among  our  students  during  the 
later  years  of  their  college  education,  but  it  covers  a 
wider  range  than  in  Norway  and  the  greater  portion  of 
it  is  reserved  for  post  graduate  courses.  In  Norway 
the  professional  studies  are  taken  up  without  any  pre- 
liminaries immediately  upon  entrance  to  the  university. 
In  the  better  professional  schools  of  America,  one,  two, 
or  three  years  of  collegiate  work  is  required  as  a prepa- 
ration for  entrance. 

I.  ORGANIZATION RELATION  TO  STATE,  COMMUNE, 

AND  CITY 

The  highest  educational  authority  of  Norway  is 
vested  in  the  Department  of  Ecclesiastical  and  Educa- 
tional Affairs  ( Kirke-og  Undervisnings-Departmentet) , 
and  the  chief  functionary  in  this  department  of  gov- 
ernment is  a member  of  the  King’s  cabinet  ( Statsraad ). 
The  work  of  the  department  is  separated  into  two  divi- 
sions, one  of  which  supervises  the  ecclesiastical  acti- 
vities and  the  other  the  educational  work  of  the  coun- 
try. This  latter  division  is  again  separated  into  two 
bureaus,  one  having  charge  of  primary  education  and 


52  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


the  other  being  in  control  of  secondary  educational 
affairs.  These  bureaus  perform  the  functions  usually 
devolving  upon  such  offices,  the  work  being  largely 
clerical.  In  addition  there  are  the  diocesan  directors 
( Stift  Direhtorer)  bearing  the  immediate  responsibili- 
ties in  primary  education,  and  a state  educational  com- 
mission ( Under visningsraad ) having  large  authority  in 
secondary  education. 

Next  to  the  department  itself  the  school  directors 
have  authority  over  primary  education.  In  fact  the 
director  has  all  but  complete  control  in  his  territory 
even  though  the  department  is  recognized  as  having 
the  higher  authority  or  powers.  The  King’s  cabinet 
appoints  seven  directors  for  the  six  dioceses  into  which 
the  state  is  divided;  two  for  the  most  northern,  because 
of  its  greater  extent,  and  one  for  each  of  the  other  five. 
The  directors  are  paid  by  the  state  and  are  amenable 
only  to  the  state,  hence  they  exercise  their  powers 
in  an  endeavor  to  effect  the  best  possible  results  edu- 
cationally without  fear  or  favor  of  local  influences. 
They  act  independently  in  their  respective  territories 
and  do  not  constitute  a committee  in  any  sense  what- 
ever. 

The  commission  having  chief  oversight  of  secondary 
education  consists  of  seven  men  appointed  by  the 
King’s  cabinet.  They  are  chosen  because  of  their 
efficiency  in  educational  affairs  without  regard  to  the 
part  of  the  country  to  which  they  belong.*  They  work 
always  as  a committee,  and  as  experts  serve  the  state 

* Some  are  always  appointed  from  outside  the  city  of  Christ- 
iania. 


BACKGROUND  AND  ORGANIZATION  53 


for  the  general  welfare  of  secondary  education.  The 
many  privileges  and  duties  exercised  by  this  commis- 
sion may  be  grouped  together  under  the  heads  of  in- 
spection and  supervision  of  secondary  schools,  and  ar- 
rangements for  having  examinations.  Several  of  the 
men  constituting  this  commission  are  at  the  same  time 
rectors  of  leading  secondary  schools  in  the  country. 
In  fact  they  are  chosen  because  of  their  familiarity  with 
and  expertness  in  just  sueli  kind  of  work.  When  it 
becomes  necessary  to  seek  advice  in  hygienic  questions 
a physician  of  recognized  ability  is  added  to  the  com- 
mission. His  judgment  and  instruction  are  respected 
and  adhered  to  very  closely. 

The  rural  communes  are  divided  into  school  districts 
or  circles  (Skolekredser) . Each  district  supports  and 
maintains  a primary  school  with  at  least  two  divisions — 
an  infant  school  ( Smaaskole ) for  children  from  seven 
to  ten  years  of  age,  and  a higher  one  designed  for  chil- 
dren from  ten  to  fourteen  years  of  age.  In  districts 
where  distances  are  great  or  roadways  difficult,  two  or 
more  infant  schools  are  provided. 

Companies  operating  one  or  more  manufacturing 
establishments  or  industrial  concerns,  and  generally 
employing  thirty  or  more  laborers,  are  required  to 
provide  a primary  school  for  the  children  of  the  men  in 
their  employ.  When  once  started  these  schools  are  to 
be  kept  up  unless  the  number  of  the  employed  is  re- 
duced below  twenty.  In  case  there  are  other  children 
who  desire  to  attend  such  school,  they  shall  have  the 
right  to  do  so  providing  it  does  not  interfere  with  the 
instruction  of  those  for  whom  the  school  was  estab- 


54  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


lished.  In  return  for  this  the  school  treasury  receives 
from  the  communal  treasury  a yearly  amount  pro- 
portioned to  the  total  cost  for  all  pupils  in  the  school.* 
While  the  law  requires  that  instruction  shall  be  pro- 
vided six  days  in  the  week  for  at  least  twelve  weeks  each 
year,  it  also  grants  to  the  communes  the  privilege  of 
extending  the  time  to  fifteen  weeks,  f It  further  pro- 
vides the  right  to  maintain  six  weeks  additional,  vol- 
untary instruction  each  year,  f These  privileges  are 
generally  taken  advantage  of  by  both  communes  and 
pupils.  The  communes  desire  the  extension  of  time 
for  school,  and  the  pupils  are  very  glad  of  the  oppor- 
tunity to  attend  the  extra  time,  even  though  their  pres- 
ence is  not  compulsory.  In  fact  the  compulsory  educa- 
tion law  has  been  so  rigidly  enforced  for  so  long  a time 
that  regular  attendance  has  become  habitual,  and  the 
exact  provisions  and  requirements  of  the  law  are  rarely 
thought  of  by  the  pupils.  There  is,  in  reality,  no  law 
requiring  children  to  attend  the  schools  provided  by 
the  state,  but  a certain  amount  of  education  is  obliga- 
tory. It  is  mandatory  that  schools  be  maintained  in 
all  of  the  districts,  but  individual  children  may  receive 
their  instruction  in  private  schools  if  they  choose,  so 
long  as  educational  requirements  are  met  from  year  to 
year.  Pupils  who  belong  to  the  schools  are  required 
to  be  in  attendance  regularly,  and  children  who  receive 
instruction  elsewhere  than  in  the  state  schools  must 
meet  the  requirements  calculated  to  bring  them  to  a 
certain  educational  standard  by  the  time  they  are  fif- 

* Law  for  Rural  Schools,  Sec.  42. 

f Law  for  Rural  Schools,  Sec.  5. 


BACKGROUND  AND  ORGANIZATION  55 


teen  years  of  age.  Failure  in  this  subjects  parents, 
guardians,  and  those  providing  schools  for  children  of 
laborers  in  their  employ  to  fine  or  imprisonment.* 

The  work  in  the  infant  school  includes  or  amounts 
to  thirty  lessons  per  week  while  in  the  higher  one  there 
are  thirty-six  lessons.  Accordingly,  the  pupils  in  the 
lower  grades  receive  a minimum  of  three  hundred  sixty 
lessons  a year,  and  this  number  may  be  increased  to 
four  hundred  fifty  or  six  hundred  thirty.  In  the  higher 
grades  they  have  at  least  four  hundred  thirty-two  les- 
sons a year,  and  if  the  time  is  extended  they  have  five 
hundred  forty  or  seven  hundred  fifty-six  lessons  a year. 

Each  rural  commune  has  its  own  school  board 
(Skolestyret)  consisting  of  a priest;  the  chairman  of  the 
municipal  council;  one  or  two  teachersf  chosen  by  the 
body  of  teachers;  as  many  other  members  (men  or 
women)  as  the  communal  council  deems  it  advisable  to 
select;  and  the  rectors  of  higher  schools,  if  there  be  any, 

* Gathered  from  Law  for  Rural  Schools,  Sections  5,  15,  16, 
56,  57,  and  59. 

t In  communes  where  the  number  of  regular  teaching  positions 
in  the  primary  schools  is  fifteen  or  over,  of  which  at  least  five  are 
positions  for  females,  one  male  and  one  female  teacher  occupying 
regular  posts  are  chosen.  In  communes  where  the  number  of  posi- 
tions is  under  fifteen,  one  male  or  female  teacher  occupying  a 
regular  post  is  chosen.  Where  a male  and  a female  teacher  are  to 
be  chosen,  the  elections  take  place  in  separate  meetings  of  the  male 
and  the  female  teachers,  each  selecting  its  representative;  in  the 
other  communes  election  takes  place  in  a common  meeting.  Elec- 
tion is  for  two  years.  The  meetings  are  conducted  by  the  chairman 
of  the  school  board.  Schools  provided  and  sustained  by  the  owners 
of  industrial  concerns  within  the  communes  may  each  be  represented 
in  the  meetings  of  the  school  board,  by  an  owner  of  such  establish- 
ment, while  matters  pertaining  to  the  school  in  which  he  is  interested 
are  being  considered.  Law  for  Rural  Schools,  Sec.  47. 


56  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


under  the  supervision  and  inspection  of  the  school 
board. 

In  the  towns  and  cities  the  school  board  consists  of 
at  least  one  priest*;  a member  of  the  city’s  executive 
council;!  as  many  other  members  chosen  for  three  years 
as  the  municipal  council  deems  it  advisable  to  select, 
at  least  half  of  whom  must  be  chosen  from  among  par- 
ents who  at  the  time  of  election  have  children  in  the 
city  primary  schools;  one  or  two  teachers;!  and,  wher- 
ever the  school  board  controls  higher  schools,  the  rectors 
of  such  schools. 

The  members  of  the  school  board  select  their  own 
chairman  and  act  together  as  a committee  or  board. 
Among  its  more  important  duties  are  appointment  of 
teachers  and  special  committees,  provision  of  course  of 
study  with  specific  instructions  regarding  its  presenta- 
tion, and  the  estimation  of  sums  of  money  necessary  to 
meet  demands  in  the  maintenance  of  the  schools  for  the 

* The  law  provides  that  there  shall  be  on  the  school  board  a 
priest  for  each  pastorate  within  the  commune,  though  not  to  exceed 
three.  In  all  cases  of  necessity  the  bishop  having  direction  of  church 
affairs  in  the  locality  appoints  the  ministerial  members  of  the  board. 
Their  appointments  are  for  three  years. 

f The  executive  board  of  the  communal  council  each  year 
elects  one  of  its  members  to  act  on  the  school  board  for  one  year. 

J In  cities  where  the  number  of  regular  teaching  positions  is 
fifteen  or  more  there  are  elected  one  male  and  one  female  teacher; 
and  in  cities  where  the  number  of  regular  teaching  positions  is  less 
than  fifteen,  but  at  least  five,  one  male  or  one  female  teacher.  In 
cases  where  two  teachers  are  elected,  the  sexes  separate,  each  select- 
ing its  own  representative;  but  where  only  one  is  elected  they  all 
meet  together  and  choose  one  of  their  number.  Election  is  for  two 
years.  The  meetings  are  conducted  by  the  chairman  of  the  school 
board. 

The  above  notes  are  from:  Law  for  City  Schools,  Sec.  40. 


BACKGROUND  AND  ORGANIZATION  57 


year.  This  estimate  of  expenses  is  sent  by  the  board 
each  year  to  the  communal  council  which  has  charge  of 
the  dispensing  of  finances  for  the  commune. 

The  course  of  study,  including  the  plan  of  instruction 
and  directions  regarding  the  supervision  of  the  schools  as 
given  by  the  board,  is  minutely  detailed  and  specifically 
stated.  It  includes  a list  of  studies  to  be  pursued,  the 
manner  and  order  of  their  presentation,  and  the  num- 
ber of  hours  per  week  to  be  devoted  to  each  subject; 
an  outline  of  arrangements  for  entrance,  promotion, 
and  leaving  examinations,  with  provisions  for  exemp- 
tion therefrom  wherever  such  is  deemed  advisable;  all 
necessary  arrangements  for  vacations ; and  other 
matters  considered  essential  in  the  maintenance  and 
carrying  on  of  a school. 

For  each  primary  school,  or  for  the  several  schools, 
using  the  same  building,  the  board  appoints  a com- 
mittee of  inspection  (Tilsynsutvalg) . This  committee 
consists  of  a member  of  the  school  board  (chosen  by  the 
board),  who  is  chairman  of  the  committee,  and  three 
other  members.  These  latter  members  are  chosen  in 
the  city  by  the  parents  of  children  attending  the  school, 
and  in  the  rural  districts  by  such  parents  and  other 
taxpayers.  A priest  appointed  by  church  authority 
is  added  to  committees  serving  town  or  city  schools. 

This  committee  of  inspection  exercises  constant  over- 
sight of  the  school,  keeping  the  board  informed  with 
reference  to  all  matters  requiring  attention  by  that 
body.  By  the  consent  of  the  communal  council  this 
committee  may  have  an  amount  provided  from  the 
school  funds  for  its  use  in  carrying  out  its  work.  The 


58  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


inspection  is  with  special  reference  to  the  physical  and 
moral  well-being  of  those  connected  with  the  institu- 
tion. Among  the  special  objects  of  its  endeavors  may 
be  enumerated  the  solving  of  all  hygienic  questions, 
regular  attendance,  good  discipline,  and  proper  moral 
conduct.  The  committee  must  also  see  to  it  that  chil- 
dren of  school  age,  not  in  attendance  at  the  state  prim- 
ary schools,  receive  instruction  in  such  quantity  and 
of  such  quality  as  to  meet  all  state  requirements.  In 
general  it  is  an  outstretched  arm  of  the  school  board, 
feeling  after  the  betterment  of  the  common  schools  in 
every  possible  direction. 

Another  committee  (called  the  school  committee — 
SJcoleraad ) is  appointed  by  the  school  board  for  each  of 
the  primary  schools  in  the  city.  The  duties  of  the  two 
committees  are  in  a way  complementary.  While  the 
committee  of  inspection  is  occupied  in  matters  external 
in  large  measure,  the  school  committee  exercises  func- 
tions more  pedagogical  in  nature,  though  it  also  has 
general  watch  care  over  the  affairs  of  the  school.  If 
there  be  a superintendent  of  schools  (Skoleinspektor) , he 
is  a member  ex  officio  of  the  school  committee,  and  its 
chairman.  Under  other  conditions  the  school  board 
designates  which  of  the  appointed  members  of  the 
committee  shall  be  its  chairman.  In  towns  where  the 
number  of  teachers  exceeds  sixty,  the  school  board  may 
direct  that  the  school  committee  shall  consist  of  the 
superintendent  and  the  principals  of  the  several  schools 
as  ex  officio  members  and  any  determined  number  of 
other  teachers  selected  by  the  body  of  teachers.  The 
elected  members  are  to  be  male  and  female  in  propor- 


BACKGROUND  AND  ORGANIZATION  59 


tion  to  their  respective  numbers  on  the  teaching  staff, 
exclusive  of  those  who  are  ex  officio  members  of  the 
committee.  The  sexes  separate  into  special  meetings 
for  the  purpose  of  election,  each  choosing  its  allotted 
number  of  representatives.  Election  is  for  two  years, 
one-half  retiring  each  year,  the  first  time  according  to 
lot.  Members  whose  terms  expire  are  required  to 
serve  longer  in  case  of  re-election.  This  school  com- 
mittee holds  regular  meetings,  according  to  its  own  ap- 
pointment, at  which  the  members  are  required  to  be 
present.  Furthermore,  the  chairman  may  call  addi- 
tional meetings  in  cases  of  necessity,  and  he  is  required 
to  call  special  meetings  when  requested  by  the  school 
board  to  do  so.  A majority  vote  of  the  members  is 
sufficient  for  the  passage  of  any  proposition.  While 
the  duties  of  this  committee  are  not  specifically  out- 
lined, it  is  intended  that  its  work  shall  concern  chiefly 
the  internal  workings  of  the  schools.  Its  functions  are 
mainly  pedagogical  in  character  as  already  stated  and 
as  evidenced  in  the  following  provisions  in  the  law. 
“The  school  board  shall  permit  the  school  committee 
to  voice  its  opinions  in  every  affair  which  concerns: 
(1)  the  general  supervision  of  primary  schools,  (2)  gen- 
eral provisions  concerning  regulations  and  discipline, 
and  (3)  text  books  and  outlines  of  instruction.”  In 
addition  the  committee  is  required  to  express  itself  re- 
garding any  matter  relating  to  the  good  of  the  school 
when  asked  by  the  board  for  advice. 

The  school  board  may  also  order  that  there  be  a 
teachers’  commission  ( Laererraad ) for  each  school  or 
for  the  several  schools  using  the  same  buildings,  con- 


60  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


sisting  of  the  teachers  in  the  school.  The  chairman 
of  this  committee  is  the  superintendent  of  schools,  a 
school  principal,  or  other  member,  according  to  the 
determination  of  the  board.  The  duties  devolving 
upon  this  commission  are  in  each  case  outlined  by  the 
board. 

The  superintendent  of  schools  ( Skoleinspektor ) has 
general  direction  of  all  the  primary  schools  in  the  city 
system.  His  duties  are  similar  to  those  of  the  superin- 
tendent in  American  towns  and  cities.  He  takes  the 
lead  in  directing  the  policies  of  the  schools  and  exer- 
cises large  powers  in  making  them  efficient.  He  is 
provided  with  well-equipped  offices,  generally  in  one 
of  the  school  buildings,  where  he  and  his  clerks,  sup- 
plied by  the  school  board,  do  the  greater  portion  of  their 
work. 

A principal  or  headmaster  ( Overlaerer ) is  generally 
placed  in  charge  of  each  school.  His  duties  are  com- 
parable to  those  performed  by  ward  principals  in  the 
United  States.  While  the  superintendent  is  the 
superior  officer  and  exercises  general  control  and  author- 
ity, the  principal  has  immediate  charge  of  the  work 
of  the  school.  He  controls  its  activities  in  harmony 
with  and  under  the  direction  of  the  superintendent, 
consulting  the  wishes  of  the  higher  official  and  respect- 
ing his  opinions.  The  superintendent  recognizes  that 
for  the  one  in  immediate  charge  of  a school  to  have  his 
hands  tied  or  his  liberties  too  circumscribed  means  the 
hampering  of  the  work;  hence,  he  gives  to  the  principals 
working  under  him  wide  latitude  in  carrying  out  their 
ideas.  For  example,  if  the  principal  is  a believer  in 


BACKGROUND  AND  ORGANIZATION  61 


coeducation  or,  on  the  other  hand,  a staunch  advocate 
of  segregation  of  the  sexes  for  instructional  purposes,  he 
is  usually  privileged  to  carry  his  policy  into  execution 
in  his  school,  even  though  the  views  of  the  superin- 
tendent are  not  wholly  in  accord  therewith.  Through- 
out their  work  they  seek  each  other’s  counsel  and  ad- 
vice, and  cooperate  successfully. 

The  private  citizen  in  Norway  plays  only  an  indirect 
part  in  school  affairs,  yet  his  interests  are  conserved 
in  various  ways.  The  local  pastor,  who  is  a member 
ex  officio  of  the  school  board,  generally  guards  the  in- 
terests of  the  masses.  His  influence  and  vote  may  be 
regarded  usually  as  a reflection  of  the  popular  mind. 
The  chairman  of  the  municipal  council,  who  also  is  a 
member  of  the  board  by  virtue  of  his  position,  is  in- 
directly the  choice  of  the  people.  The  teacher  or 
teachers  chosen  to  occupy  on  the  school  board  nearly 
always  work  in  harmony  with  the  public  will.  The 
committee  of  inspection  has  a majority  of  its  members 
chosen  directly  by  vote  of  the  people  immediately  con- 
cerned. The  press  is  free  and  educational  movements 
are  continually  discussed  in  the  leading  papers.  Fur- 
ther than  this,  educational  affairs  are  common  topics  of 
conversation,  being  talked  of  on  all  occasions  under 
various  circumstances  and  conditions.  It  may  be 
said  to  their  credit  that  those  discussing  these  subjects 
do  so  intelligently  and  critically.  The  masses  are 
alive  to  the  educational  situation,  are  intensely  in- 
terested in  their  schools,  and  are  acquainted  with  the 
provisions  of  the  law  concerning  them.  The  people 
being  so  democratic  in  tendency  and  so  very  frank  in 


62  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


the  expression  of  their  feelings  and  opinions,  naturally 
reflect  public  sentiment;  which  because  of  being  under- 
stood has  more  weight  and  is  correspondingly  a greater 
factor  in  legislative  activities. 

The  primary  schools  receive  their  financial  support 
from  the  state,  county,  and  commune.  The  state  pro- 
vides for  city  schools  one-third  of  straight  salaries, 
which  range  between  twelve  hundred  and  fourteen 
hundred  crowns  for  men,  and  between  eight  hundred 
and  nine  hundred  crowns  for  women;  two- thirds  of 
additional  salary  paid  because  of  long  service  to  the 
limit  of  eight  hundred  crowns  per  year  for  men  and  five 
hundred  crowns  per  year  for  women;  and  one-third  of 
salaries  paid  for  positions  requiring  only  part  time,  for 
teaching  by  the  hour,  and  for  teaching  in  continuation 
schools.  In  certain  cases  where  the  treasuries  are 
depleted  the  state  treasury  furnishes  as  high  as  forty- 
five  per  cent  of  teachers  ’ salaries  within  the  fixed  limits 
mentioned  above.  In  the  rural  communes  the  grant 
received  from  the  state  amounts  to  forty-five  per  cent 
of  the  teachers’  salaries,  and  where  finances  are  low 
this  amount  may  be  increased  to  sixty  per  cent.  The 
amount  of  this  state  grant  is  figured  on  the  basis  of 
salaries  that  do  not  exceed  twenty-four  crowns  per  week 
in  the  second  or  higher  division,  and  nineteen  crowns  in 
the  first  or  infant  division  of  the  primary  school,  ex- 
cept in  the  county  of  Finmarken  where  the  bases  may 
be  respectively  twenty-eight  crowns  and  twenty-two 
crowns  per  week. 

In  each  county  (Amt)  the  county  council  provides 
funds  for  the  following  purposes:  raising  teachers’ 


BACKGROUND  AND  ORGANIZATION  63 


salaries  in  case  of  long  service,  erecting  school  build- 
ings, supplying  teachers  ’ homes,  paying  substitute 
teachers,  purchasing  apparatus,  relieving  communes 
and  municipalities  where  school  expenses  are  dis- 
proportionately high,  and  maintaining  continuation 
and  artisan  schools.  Whatever  is  required  to  defray 
the  expenses  of  the  primary  schools,  in  addition  to 
state  and  county  grants,  tuition,  receipts  from  school 
lands  or  holdings,  etc.,  is  furnished  by  the  commune 
or  municipality  through  its  council. 

The  secondary  schools  are  either  state  or  communal. 
The  state  schools  are  provided  with  grounds,  buildings, 
and  equipment  by  the  communes  in  which  they  are 
located;  the  remaining  expenses  are  met  by  state  grants, 
tuition  fees,  etc.  The  expense  of  maintaining  com- 
munal schools  falls  largely  upon  the  communes.  The 
state  furnishes  one- third  of  the  salaries  in  both  classes 
of  schools,  and  all  additional  amounts  paid  to  teachers 
because  of  long  service.  While  most  of  the  secondary 
schools  charge  regular  tuition  fees,  all  of  them  have 
funds  which  supply  free  scholarships  to  a number  of 
pupils  each  year.  In  some  communes  they  have  been 
able  already  to  provide  free  middle  schools,  and  it 
appears  at  least  possible  that  all  state  and  communal 
schools  may  sometime  be  free.  The  aim  in  financing 
the  school  system  is  to  equalize  the  burden  of  expense 
as  far  as  possible,  and  to  recognize,  at  the  same  time, 
the  efforts  of  those  directly  concerned.  In  order  to  ob- 
tain the  best  results,  authority  has  been  strongly  cen- 
tralized; school  boards,  communal  and  county  councils, 
and  state  officials  exercise  large  discretionary  powers. 


64  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


VI.  BUILDINGS  AND  GROUNDS 

The  school  buildings  of  Norway  are  justly  reputed 
to  be  the  most  magnificent,  best  located,  and  finest 
edifices  of  the  country.  They  are  built  of  substantial 
materials  according  to  attractive  architectural  designs, 
and  are  provided  with  liberal  equipment.  The  larger 
buildings  are  usually  constructed  of  stone,  brick  and 
stone,  or  brick  and  cement;  while  the  smaller  ones  are 
built  of  lumber  and  stone.  In  the  erection  of  build- 
ings, great  care  is  exercised  to  make  them  spacious  and 
permanent.  All  materials  used  are  selected  because  of 
their  durability  and  suitability  to  purpose.  In  order 
to  guarantee  the  best  hygienic  conditions,  the  law  pro- 
vides that  buildings  must  meet  the  approval  of  experts 
in  hygiene  before  they  can  be  used  for  school  purposes. 
This  means  that  the  services  of  these  experts  must  be 
secured  in  getting  out  designs  for  school  buildings, 
whether  in  the  erection  of  new  or  the  remodeling  of  old 
ones. 

The  school  buildings  are  heated  by  furnaces  or  stoves. 
The  newer  ones  are  modern  in  every  respect  and,  of 
course,  have  excellent  heating  systems.  Those  which 
have  done  service  for  several  decades  are  usually  heated 
by  stoves. 

The  buildings  are  divided  into  rooms  in  such  a man- 
ner that  the  daylight  nearly  always  enters  from  the 
left  or  the  rear  of  the  pupils  when  they  are  seated  at 
their  desks.  This  rule  is  disregarded  only  in  rare  cases. 
During  the  short  days  of  winter  it  is  essential  to  provide 
artificial  light.  In  cities  and  large  towns  they  use 


BACKGROUND  AND  ORGANIZATION  65 


electricity  for  lighting  the  school  buildings;  in  the  coun- 
try or  in  small  towns,  where  the  municipalities  do  not 
maintain  any  central  lighting  plant,  various  devices 
are  installed.  Sometimes  gasoline  is  used  and  again 
ordinary  oil  lamps  are  common.  An  abundance  of 
light  of  the  best  procurable  quality  is  generally  pro- 
vided. 

Besides  admitting  light  the  outside  windows  are  of 
use  in  providing  ventilation  for  the  school  rooms. 
They  are  opened  wide  during  intermissions  between 
classes,  so  that  when  the  children  come  in  from  their 
exercise  on  the  play  grounds  they  enter  an  atmosphere 
nearly  as  pure  and  fresh  as  that  out  of  doors.  In  ad- 
dition, many  schoolhouses,  especially  those  built  re- 
cently, have  regular  ventilating  devices. 

The  class  room  furniture  in  Norway,  like  that  used 
in  many  other  European  schools,  is  about  as  primitive 
in  design  and  lacking  in  attractiveness  as  anything  found 
in  the  whole  country.  Its  evolution  surely  has  been 
greatly  retarded.  In  each  room  there  is  a small  plat- 
form high  enough  to  enable  the  instructor  to  see  all 
his  pupils  with  ease.  On  this  platform  is  a desk  and  a 
high  chair  in  which  the  teacher  sits  most  of  the  time 
while  giving  instruction. 

The  pupils  ’ seats  and  desks  are  made  of  heavy 
lumber  and  attached  to  a common  base.  This  makes 
them  clumsy,  and  they  appear  very  queer  to  one  ac- 
customed to  the  better  designs  now  in  use  in  some  coun- 
tries. Those  of  recent  make  are  for  but  one  pupil, 
though  older  ones,  some  of  which  are  still  in  use,  ac- 
commodate three  or  four.  In  construction  the  seat 


66  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


is  generally  a solid  flat  bench  with  a low  back.  The 
desk  has  a slightly  sloping  top,  a small  inconvenient 
shelf  for  books,  and  a receptacle  for  pencils,  pens,  rulers, 
and  other  articles  used  by  school  children.  The  Nor- 
wegians deserve  commendation  for  the  care  exercised 
in  the  arrangement  of  seats  and  desks.  The  distance 
and  proportion  between  them  are  regulated  according 
to  scientific  principles  looking  to  the  physical  welfare 
of  the  occupants.  The  bodily  posture  of  children  in 
school  determines  in  large  measure  what  it  will  be  out 
of  school.  Far  too  little  attention  has  been  given  the 
physical  side  of  education,  and  one  of  the  important 
problems  in  connection  there  with  is  the  proper  con- 
struction of  school-room  furniture. 

In  the  smaller  buildings,  classrooms  have  commo- 
dious cupboards  for  apparatus  (maps,  charts,  globes, 
plates,  etc.),  and  various  things  with  which  the  chil- 
dren work  (sewing  materials,  exercise  books,  etc.). 
While  they  have  a liberal  supply  of  excellent  illus- 
trative material  and  teaching  apparatus  and  the  best 
of  facilities  for  storing  it,  mechanical  appliances  for 
its  display  and  devices  for  its  convenient  use  are  woe- 
fully lacking.  Maps  and  charts  are  held  in  the  hand 
or  hung  on  a nail  or  other  fixture  in  the  room;  while 
globes  and  the  like  are  placed  on  chairs  or  improvised 
stands.  In  general  the  apparatus  is  awkward  to 
manipulate  and  as  a result  much  of  its  value  is  lost. 

Blackboards  of  proper  size  are  very  rare  in  the  schools 
of  Norway.  As  a rule  the  board  is  about  three  by 
five  feet  in  size  and  fastened  to  a clumsy  easel  which 
elevates  it  so  high  that  it  is  out  of  reach  of  the  pupils. 


BACKGROUND  AND  ORGANIZATION  67 


To  enable  the  children  to  use  such  a board  a small 
platform  is  provided.  The  child  mounts  the  platform 
by  means  of  a few  steps  and  there  stands  and  does  his 
blackboard  work.  In  only  one  instance  did  the  writer 
during  his  visits  to  the  schools  find  what  appeared  to 
him  to  be  an  adequate  amount  of  blackboard  space. 
This  exceptional  condition  was  in  one  of  the  primary 
schools  where  special  equipment  was  installed  for  the 
instruction  of  children  below  normal  intelligence. 
The  ample  provision  of  blackboard  here  is  proof  of  a 
recognition  of  its  value,  and  the  situation  may  also 
be  regarded  as  an  indictment  against  the  prevalent 
neglect  in  this  line. 

School  room  decorations  are  not  as  prominent  as 
might  be  expected.  Despite  the  facts  that  the  whole 
of  Norway  is  picturesque,  that  her  artists  are  quite 
numerous,  and  that  the  masses  of  her  people  are  more 
than  ordinarily  appreciative  of  the  finer  phases  of  life, 
very  few  paintings  or  pieces  of  sculpture  adorn  her 
schools.  True,  exceptions  as  to  this  rule  of  scant  pro- 
vision of  the  artistic  may  be  found;  but,  as  in  all  coun- 
tries, they  quite  generally  fail  to  appreciate  the  educa- 
tive values  of  art. 

While,  traditionally  at  least,  the  study  and  recita- 
tion rooms  have  been  considered  of  prime  and  greatest 
importance  in  school  buildings,  there  are  others,  ac- 
cessory to  them,  which  in  their  effects  are  productive 
of  quite  as  good  results.  Among  them  may  be  men- 
tioned: offices,  teachers’  rooms,  libraries,  laboratories, 
and  other  rooms  for  special  purposes.  Some  of  these 


68  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


are  not  provided  in  all  schools,  but  commonly  all  of 
them  are  found  in  the  city  school  buildings. 

The  offices  for  rectors,  inspectors,  head  masters, 
etc.,  are  admirably  arranged  and  handsomely  appoint- 
ed. They  are  provided  with  desks,  cabinets,  chairs, 
settees,  tables,  and  other  furnishings  which  add  to 
convenience  and  comfort.  The  rooms  for  teachers 
are  equipped  and  furnished  in  a way  just  as  suitable 
to  their  purpose.  In  these  they  spend  their  vacant 
periods  in  study,  reading,  or  in  leisure,  according  to 
their  choice.  Here,  too,  officers  and  teachers  are 
served  with  luncheons  in  the  middle  of  forenoon  and 
afternoon  sessions. 

There  are  libraries  in  nearly  all  school  buildings. 
While  many  of  them  are  small  some  are  of  large  conse- 
quence. The  one  in  the  Christiania  Cathedral  School 
numbers  thirty  thousand  volumes.  This  is  one  of  the 
oldest  and  perhaps  the  largest  library  in  any  school 
of  the  country,  and  it  is  regarded  with  considerable 
justifiable  pride. 

The  laboratories  are  furnished  in  harmony  with 
their  traditional  plan  of  instruction.  Instead  of  having 
a supply  of  apparatus  so  that  most  or  all  of  the  pupils 
may  be  occupied  simultaneously  in  laboratory  experi- 
mentation, they  have  but  one  set  of  instruments. 
However,  they  do  furnish  liberal  quantities  of  materials 
for  laboratory  experimentation.  The  teacher  is  the 
chief  operator,  one  or  two  pupils  assist  in  the  work, 
and  the  other  members  of  the  class  are  onlookers. 

Where  domestic  arts  are  taught,  rooms  are  fitted  up 
especially  for  the  purpose.  Stoves,  cooking  utensils, 


BACKGROUND  AND  ORGANIZATION  69 


and  many  other  necessary  articles  are  at  hand  ready 
for  use.  The  efficiency  of  the  work  is  in  no  wise  hin- 
dered by  lack  of  supplies.  In  many  instances  teachers 
go  themselves  to  the  markets  and  purchase  provisions 
needed  for  the  day.  An  earnest  effort  is  made  to  com- 
bine theory  and  practice  in  proportions  suitable  to  ob- 
taining the  best  possible  results. 

Some  of  the  larger  buildings  have  special  rooms  for 
the  storing  of  apparatus  and  illustrative  materi- 
als (Anskuelsesmidler) . Racks,  cupboards,  cabinets, 
drawers,  cases,  and  the  like  provide  convenient  means 
for  preserving  these  supplies  and  of  rendering  them 
easily  accessible.  Gymnastic  halls  and  lunch  rooms 
will  be  discussed  in  another  section. 

The  playgrounds  are  generally  small,  but  some  of  the 
schools  have,  in  addition  to  the  grounds  immediately 
surrounding  the  buildings,  athletic  parks  of  consider- 
able proportions.  The  grounds  about  the  school 
buildings  are  arranged  with  a view  of  securing  from 
them  maximum  returns.  They  are  enclosed  by  high 
board  or  wire  fence,  or  by  stone  or  brick  and  cement 
walls.  A heavy  coating  of  gravel  is  usually  placed  on 
the  ground  in  order  to  avoid  the  growth  of  vegetation 
or  an  accumulation  of  dust.  “Keep  off  the  grass” 
signs  are  not  in  evidence,  for  rarely  do  they  attempt  to 
have  grassy  lawns. 

They  recognize  the  need  and  value  of  physical  exer- 
cise in  the  open,  and  provide  means  for  it  in  connection 
with  every  school.  It  is  specifically  required  that  all- 
pupils go  on  to  the  playgrounds  during  the  intermis- 
sions (fri  Kvarterer)  which  come  between  all  lessons. 


70  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


While  the  children  are  at  play  one  or  more  of  the 
teachers  are  detailed  to  supervise  the  grounds,  while 
others  are  to  patrol  the  hallways.  Large  roofs  are  put 
up  under  which  the  children  play  when  the  weather  is 
not  favorable  to  being  in  the  open.  On  rare  occasions 
when  the  weather  is  bitter,  pupils  may  be  permitted 
to  remain  indoors.  Children  whose  health  is  ex- 
tremely delicate  are  dealt  with  in  leniency,  and  some 
of  them  are  permitted  to  remain  inside  regularly. 

Near  to  the  school  buildings,  generally  on  a corner 
of  the  grounds,  homes  are  provided  for  the  head  master 
or  principal  and  the  janitor  (V agtmester) . Sometimes 
the  janitor  and  his  family  live  in  an  apartment  in  the 
school  building.  Generally,  however,  a double  house 
is  erected,  one  part  for  the  principal  and  the  other  for 
the  janitor.  These  homes  are  furnished  rent  free  to 
these  men. 

Teachers  in  rural  districts,  as  a rule,  are  supplied 
with  a house  and  sufficient  ground  for  garden  and  the 
pasturage  of  two  or  three  cows.  These  provisions  ma- 
terially reduce  living  expenses,  and,  in  a way,  recom- 
pense for  the  low  salaries  received.  In  one  rural  school 
the  writer  found  three  hundred  and  fifty  pupils  taught 
in  two  divisions — forenoon  and  afternoon  sessions — 
by  six  teachers.  The  principal  had  been  in  charge  of 
the  school  forty-three  years.  One  portion  of  the  school 
building  provided  a residence  for  him  and  his  family. 
They  had  a small  garden;  a fruit  orchard;  a few  acres 
of  land  for  pasturage  and  hay;  and  a barn  and  sheds 
for  cow,  pig,  and  chickens.  There  are  many  similar 
situations  throughout  the  country.  This  particular 


BACKGROUND  AND  ORGANIZATION  71 


one  lay  just  outside  a small  city,  and  this  fact  accounts 
in  part  for  the  large  number  of  pupils  in  attendance. 

As  a rule  the  homes  for  rural  school  teachers  com- 
pare very  favorably  with  the  better  class  of  homes  in 
the  surrounding  neighborhood.  They  have  sufficient 
room,  are  comfortable,  and  generally  satisfy  the  oc- 
cupants. The  majority  of  rural  teachers  have  such 
homes  provided,  though  only  a few  city  teachers  enjoy 
this  favor.  In  1905,  two  thousand,  eight  hundred 
and  twenty-six  rural  teachers  had  homes  furnished 
them  free  of  cost. 


VII.  GENERAL  FEATURES  OF  INNER  ORGANIZATION 

Most  of  the  teachers  in  the  rural  primary  schools  are 
men,  while  the  majority  of  them  in  the  city  are  women. 
During  the  year  1907  there  were  four  thousand,  one 
hundred  and  twenty- three  male  and  one  thousand, 
four  hundred  and  seven  female  teachers  occupying  reg- 
ular positions  in  the  rural  schools,  and  in  the  city  their 
numbers  were  respectively  eight  hundred  and  twenty- 
eight  and  one  thousand,  six  hundred  and  six.  Although 
the  law  makes  no  requirements  as  to  sex,  except  that 
in  city  schools  there  must  be  at  least  one  master  and 
one  governess,  there  are  certain  forces  operative  which 
almost  equal  edicts  of  law.  Traditionally,  teachers  in 
the  rural  schools  are  men  and,  as  previously  stated, 
homes  are  provided  for  them  and  their  families.  Ap- 
pointments to  teaching  positions  are  permanent. 
Teachers  remain  in  their  places  until  death  removes 


72  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


them  or  until  they  choose  to  retire  on  pension,  which  is, 
all  too  often,  long  after  they  pass  the  time  of  their 
efficiency.  It  is  difficult  to  break  with  the  old  customs 
and  hence  the  entrance  of  women  teachers  into  the  rural 
school  positions  has  been  slow.  In  the  cities  the  con- 
ditions are  different.  There  only  a small  percentage 
of  the  teachers  have  homes  furnished  them,  the  number 
of  teaching  positions  without  supervising  responsibility 
is  large,  and  the  salaries  paid  to  women  are  lower  than 
those  paid  to  men.  As  a consequence  the  female 
teachers  have  found  easy  entrance  into  the  city  schools, 
and  at  present  they  outnumber  the  men  two  to  one. 
Women  have  been  teaching  since  1869,  and  the  people 
are  convinced  that  their  ability  as  teachers  is  equal  to 
that  of  the  sterner  sex. 

In  the  secondary  schools,  also,  the  majority  of  the 
instructors  are  men.  In  the  gymnasia  practically  all 
of  them  are  men,  but  in  the  middle  schools  there  are 
many  women  teachers.  Even  though  the  Norwegians 
recognize  woman’s  ingenuity  and  efficiency  in  teaching 
small  children,  they  have  not  yet  become  converted 
to  the  idea  that  she  is  man ’s  equal  in  the  more  advanced 
educational  fields.  It  seems  probable  that  tradition 
is  the  chief  hindrance  to  the  entrance  of  women  into 
teaching  positions  in  the  gymnasia. 

In  their  plan  of  instruction  there  is  much  to  commend 
and  some  things  to  criticise.  The  teachers  do  a large 
amount  of  teaching,  but  they  also  provide  opportunity 
for  the  children  to  do  a great  deal  on  their  own  initia- 
tive, so  that  they  too  may  know  the  joy  of  discovery 
and  feel  the  triumph  of  mastery.  The  Norwegian 


BACKGROUND  AND  ORGANIZATION  73 


pedagogue  uses  the  recitation  period,  nearly  always 
fifty  minutes,  in  an  endeavor  to  impart  information, 
both  directly  and  indirectly;  directly  by  straightfor- 
ward giving,  and  indirectly  through  cooperative  mental 
activities.  While  they  feel  the  importance  of  direct 
instruction,  they  see,  also,  the  advantage  in  shifting 
a part  of  the  responsibility  to  the  pupils.  They  recog- 
nize the  fact  that  the  child  has  ability,  and  that  by 
himself  he  is  capable  of  finding  and  recognizing  prob- 
lems, and  of  working  them  out  to  satisfying  conclu- 
sions. They  appreciate  that  even  a small  child  is  able 
to  carry  out  many  educative  activities  with  a minimum 
of  direction  from  the  teacher,  and  that  the  development 
which  comes  from  this  self-direction  and  initiative  is 
one  of  the  most  valuable  ends  of  education.  The  in- 
tent is  that  the  class  period  shall  be  devoted  to  exercises 
which  will  furnish  information  and,  at  the  same  time, 
make  the  children  independent  and  able  to  direct 
themselves. 

Though  the  ideals  and  aims  are  excellent,  the  means 
for  attaining  them  are  not  the  best.  There  is  a certain 
inherited  aloofness  on  the  part  of  the  instructor  which 
robs  both  teacher  and  pupils  of  some  of  the  values 
which  come  from  closer  association.  During  the  recita- 
tion hour  the  teacher  nearly  always  occupies  the  high 
chair  on  the  elevated  platform,  except  while  using  the 
blackboard  or  doing  other  demonstration al  work.  My 
observations  convince  me  that  the  teachers,  especially 
the  men,  do  not  get  down  and  work  among  and  with  the 
children  as  much  as  seems  essential  to  the  accomplish- 
ment of  the  greatest  good. 


74  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


Now  the  discipline  and  character  of  recitations  also 
deserve  attention.  When  a pupil  is  called  upon  to  re- 
cite, he  is  expected  to  pass  to  the  aisle  and  there  stand 
erect  until  the  recitation  is  completed.  Only  in  rare 
cases  are  children  allowed  to  sit  while  reciting.  I have 
seen  children  only  eleven  or  twelve  years  of  age  called 
to  the  front  of  the  room  to  analyze  and  develop  a prob- 
lem. The  smallest  children  are  required  to  give  only 
short  answers  to  questions,  but  responses  rapidly  in- 
crease in  length,  as  age  advances,  until  they  amount 
to  minute  and  extended  discussions  of  topics.  Recita- 
tions lasting  ten  to  fifteen  minutes  are  not  uncommon, 
and  the  children  become  quite  expert  in  the  relation  of 
facts  and  in  the  development  of  problems  presented. 
This  method  of  procedure  is  perhaps  all  right  for  a cer- 
tain class  of  children,  but  timid  boys  and  girls  are  some- 
times embarrassed  to  the  extent  that  they  are  unable 
to  do  credit  to  themselves,  their  teachers,  or  the  lessons. 
On  one  occasion  I saw  a boy  who  was  so  frightened  in 
an  attempt  to  stand  and  recite,  being  required  at  the 
same  time  to  look  into  the  face  of  a complaining  teacher, 
that  he  was  unable  to  say  anything  whatever.  The 
teacher,  a man  of  advanced  age,  finally  awoke  to  the 
situation,  and  placing  his  hand  on  the  boy’s  head, 
talked  to  him  about  the  lesson  until  he  calmed  the  lad ’s 
fears  and  obtained  a very  satisfactory  response  from 
him. 

In  addition  to  classroom  activities  connected  with 
mental  growth,  considerable  work  is  done  looking  to 
physical  development.  Gymnastic  exercise  is  required 
of  all  children  in  primary  and  secondary  schools,  ex- 


BACKGROUND  AND  ORGANIZATION  75 


cepting  those  in  first  and  second  grades  and  a few  who 
are  physically  disqualified  for  it.  To  provide  for  this 
work,  the  city  schools  furnish  large  halls  with  excellent 
equipment,  and  special  teachers  to  give  instruction. 
A Swedish  system  of  gymnastics  is  in  vogue  throughout 
the  country.  There  seems  to  be  no  criticism  against 
the  system,  and  the  benefits  testify  emphatically  to 
its  efficiency.  The  apparatus  is  simple  and  inexpensive, 
but  the  variety  of  movements  and  the  numberless  com- 
binations of  them  seem  to  answer  every  demand. 

Certain  conditions  and  customs  prevailing  in  Nor- 
way make  it  necessary  to  serve  lunches  at  the  school 
buildings.  The  morning  sessions  are  long  and  the  din- 
ner hour  is  far  later  than  noon — generally  two  or  three 
o’clock.  Furthermore,  many  children  of  poor  parentage 
come  to  school  underfed.  Opportunity  to  obtain 
a light  lunch  of  nourishing  food  and  a warm  drink  at 
about  10:30  or  11  o’clock  is  an  appreciated  necessity. 
Hence  most  buildings  have  lunch  rooms  arranged  and 
equipped  according  to  local  demands.  Here,  in  the 
secondary  schools,  the  family  of  the  janitor  furnishes 
rolls,  buns,  cakes,  cocoa,  coffee,  milk,  etc.,  at  a reason- 
able rate.  As  stated  before,  the  teachers  have  lunches 
served  in  their  own  rooms.  Some  cities  provide  chil- 
dren in  the  primary  schools  with  one  meal  of  whole- 
some food  each  day  of  school  during  the  winter  months — 
generally  from  the  middle  of  October  until  the  first  of 
May.  This  is  free  to  the  needy  children,  and  others 
obtain  it  at  first  cost. 

In  Christiania  they  have  a central  kitchen  from 
which  the  city  primary  schools  receive  supplies.  This 


76  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


kitchen  has  a capacity  for  steam  cooking,  ten  thousand 
liters  at  a time.  Only  the  best  food  is  purchased. 
This  is  carefully  prepared  and  delivered  every  day  in 
tightly  sealed  cans  to  the  several  schools  where  it  is 
served  hot.  The  maintenance  of  this  kitchen  is  in 
answer  to  recommendations  made  by  a committee, 
appointed  by  the  school  board,  after  visiting  various 
similar  European  institutions  and  studying  carefully 
into  their  operations.  In  equipment,  management, 
and  good  results  it  is  not  surpassed  in  any  city  in 
Europe  or  America.  In  some  of  the  schools,  hundreds 
of  free  meals  are  dispensed  every  day  throughout  the 
long  winter.  During  the  year  1908-1909,  from  Octo- 
ber 19,  1908,  to  April  30,  1909,  (one  hundred  and  thirty- 
two  days),  the  Christiania  central  kitchen  furnished 
616,821  free  meals  and  77,733  meals  which  were  paid 
for  by  children  in  the  schools.  This  work  stands  as  a 
testimonial  to  the  beneficence  of  the  people  whose  cir- 
cumstances enable  them  to  maintain  it. 

The  discipline  of  the  school  borders  on  the  military 
order.  The  pupils  form  in  line  and  march  in  passing 
to  and  from  class-rooms  and  playgrounds.  While  the 
work  of  instruction  proceeds  strict  discipline  is  main- 
tained. Before  entering  a classroom  where  a recita- 
tion is  in  progress,  one  invariably  knocks  at  the  door, 
whoever  he  is  and  whatever  his  errand,  and  by  the  time 
he  enters  teacher  and  pupils  are  on  their  feet.  Turn- 
ing to  the  one  entering,  they  bow  and  continue  to  face 
him  until  he  is  seated,  which  is  a signal  to  them  to  sit. 
Should  the  visitor  withdraw  before  the  class  is  dismissed, 


BACKGROUND  AND  ORGANIZATION  77 


the  pupils  again  rise  to  their  feet  and  bow  him  out; 
but,  if  he  remains  until  they  are  dismissed,  they  bow 
to  him  before  taking  their  departure.  Every  activity 
indoors  and  out  of  doors  is  closely  supervised,  and  the 
control  exercised  over  the  pupils  is  praiseworthy. 

Attendance  at  school  is  regular  in  all  grades.  When 
children  are  absent  for  any  reason  the  case  is  inquired 
into  without  delay,  and,  unless  satisfactory  excuse  or 
explanation  is  forthcoming,  the  truant  officers  are  on 
hand  to  enforce  regulations.  Failure  to  comply  with 
the  laws  regarding  absence  from  school,  subjects  par- 
ents or  guardians  of  children  to  a fine  of  from  one  to 
twenty-five  crowns.*  Very  rarely  is  an  enforcement 
of  these  laws  necessary,  for  the  people  are  generally  law- 
abiding  and  peace-loving.  Being  eager  for  develop- 
ment, they  gladly  comply  with  educational  provisions 
without  any  compulsion,  and  regularity  in  attendance 
is  the  universal  practice.  Sickness  is  perhaps  the  most 
common  excuse  given  for  absence  and,  since  excellent 
health  is  characteristic  of  the  people,  this  is  infrequent. 

Pupils  are  nearly  always  healthy,  vigorous,  and  ro- 
bust. One  of  the  chief  points  calling  attention  to  this 
is  the  rarity  of  cases  where  glasses  are  worn.  In  visit- 
ing schools  I noticed  that  spectacled  children  were  very 
few.  I was  at  first  inclined  to  criticise  what  I inter- 
preted to  be  neglect  of  the  eyes,  but  soon  found  that 
eyesight,  as  well  as  the  general  health  of  the  children, 
was  being  carefully  guarded.  Every  school  has  its 

* Law  for  Rural  Schools,  Sec.  15.  A crown  is  equal  to  about 
twenty-seven  cents. 


78  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


physician  whose  duty  it  is  to  regulate  sanitation  and  to 
remedy  physical  defects  of  children.  I ascertained 
that  in  some  schools  special  examinations  had  been 
conducted  for  the  testing  of  eyesight,  and  results  showed 
that  very  few  of  the  pupils  were  under  the  necessity 
of  wearing  glasses.  Among  the  causes  contributing 
to  this  favorable  situation  may  be  mentioned  a health- 
ful climate,  regular  drill  in  gymnastics,  proper  lighting 
of  school  rooms,  good  ventilation,  physical  exercise 
in  the  open  between  successive  classes,  and,  in  general, 
the  maintenance  of  a high  state  of  physical  vigor.  The 
Norse  take  justifiable  pride  in  their  physical  develop- 
ment, and  they  pay  considerable  attention  to  this  phase 
of  education.  Consequently  the  children  are  able  to 
attack  the  strenuous  activities  of  school  life  with  vim, 
and  mastery  of  the  course  of  study  is  not  a hardship. 


Chapter  II 
TEACHERS 

I.  QUALIFICATIONS  AND  CERTIFICATION 

TEACHING  is  a profession  in  Norway. 

Those  following  it  have  chosen  it  as  their 
life  work.  The  people  thus  engaged  deserve 
and  receive  the  recognition,  confidence,  and 
esteem  of  the  masses,  and  they  maintain  the  dignity  of 
their  calling.  As  a class  they  rank  high  educationally, 
morally,  and  professionally.  With  the  advance  in  social 
ideals  it  has  been  necessary  to  raise  the  standards 
of  preparation  for  teaching,  and,  as  the  years  pass,  fur- 
ther changes  will  be  required.  For  a long  time,  pro- 
fessional training  has  been  demanded  of  every  appointee 
to  a teaching  position,  and  indications  point  to  a rapid 
development  of  the  quality  of  this  training  until  every 
resource  is  operative. 

The  law  requires  that  to  be  eligible  for  appointment 
to  a regular  teaching  position  in  the  secondary  schools 
(middle  school  and  gymnasium),  one  must  have  had 
a course  in  the  university  and  special  training  provided 
in  the  pedagogical  seminary.  This  means  that  the 
candidate  has  completed:  (1)  the  twelve  years  of  work 
in  the  primary  and  secondary  schools,  where  a wide 


79 


80  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


range  of  instruction  and  general  culture  are  provided; 
(2)  a course  in  the  university  (four  to  seven  years  in 
length),  devoted  to  exhaustive  research  in  the  particular 
branches  of  study  which  are  subsequently  to  be  taught; 
and  (3)  the  course  of  training  given  in  the  pedagogical 
seminary. 

It  is  the  aim  and  function  of  this  seminary  to  provide 
for  the  university  graduates  who  are  to  become  teachers 
the  most  practical  and  complete  professional  training 
possible  within  the  limits  of  time  (six  months).  It  is 
readily  evident  that  excellence  in  educational  equip- 
ment and  intelligent  insight  into  the  business  of  teach- 
ing are  among  the  accomplishments  of  the  profession. 
In  fact,  mastery  of  the  field  to  be  taught  and  profes- 
sional training  in  its  presentation  are  requisites. 

The  certificates  or  diplomas  issued  upon  completion 
of  the  preparatory  work  just  outlined  are  the  only  cre- 
dentials required  of  the  Norwegian  teachers.  Being 
issued  by  the  state  they  have  a standard  of  value  which 
is  uniform,  recognized,  and  honored  throughout  the 
realm.  Without  these  papers  it  would  be  folly  to  seek 
appointment  to  a fixed  (permanent ) post. 

Besides  the  regular  corps  of  instructors  occupying 
on  full  time  in  the  general  lines  of  instruction,  there  are 
many  special  teachers  devoting  their  energies  along 
particular  lines  of  work,  such  as  home  economics,  draw- 
ing, music,  gymnastics,  and  manual  training;  and  still 
others  who  teach  some  of  the  regular  branches  of  study 
only  part  time,  whose  positions  are  not  permanent. 
Special  preparation  is  required  in  order  to  obtain  posi- 
tions in  these  specific  lines  of  work. 


TEACHERS 


81 


II.  TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS 

Norway  early  recognized  the  value  of  specific  train- 
ing for  the  work  of  the  teacher.  The  experiences  of 
other  nations  served  as  object  lessons  illustrating  the 
good  coming  from  the  services  of  properly  equipped 
teachers  and  the  dangers  of  proceeding  without  such. 
The  state  was  eager  to  lay  substantial  foundations,  to 
conserve  and  develop  every  resource,  to  build  perma- 
nently and  economically,  and  to  profit  by  the  experi- 
ences of  other  systems.  Consequently,  the  people 
moved  forward  in  a conservative  manner  and  planned 
for  the  future  as  well  as  for  immediate  needs. 

Utilizing  the  strong  points  of  other  systems  and 
adapting  them  to  local  conditions,  the  state  established 
six  teachers’  seminaries,  locating  one  in  each  of  the  six 
dioceses  into  which  the  country  is  divided,  so  that  they 
would  be  within  easy  access  of  the  people  attending 
them.  Besides  these  state  seminaries,  four  private 
institutions,  having  almost  identical  functions,  have 
been  established  and  are  flourishing.  The  private 
seminaries  are  located  at  vantage  points  not  too  close 
to  the  State  Schools  yet  where  they  will  be 
within  reach  of  a large  number  of  people.  The  favor- 
able location  of  these  schools  makes  it  possible  for  a 
large  number  of  the  attendants  to  live  in  their  own 
homes,  while  the  large  majority  need  be  but  a short 
distance  from  their  homes. 

The  work  of  the  teachers’  seminaries  is,  of  course,  to 
provide  special  preparation  for  teaching  in  the  schools 
throughout  the  nation.  Their  curricula  are  similar 


82  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


to  those  used  in  the  secondary  schools.  The  chief 
point  of  difference  between  them  is  the  attitude  taken 
toward  the  subjects  of  instruction.  In  the  secondary 
schools  the  aim  is  general  and  in  a large  measure  cul- 
tural, while  in  the  seminaries  the  attempt  is  always 
to  present  the  lesson  or  subjects  of  instruction  in  such 
a manner  that  the  pupils  shall  get  both  intellectual 
development  and  the  correct  method  of  presentation. 
It  is  the  intent  that  this  experience  shall  help  to  qual- 
ify for  the  successful  teaching  of  the  subjects  studied. 
The  work  corresponds  closely  with  that  done  in  the 
normal  schools  of  America  or  similar  teachers’  schools 
in  other  lands. 

It  is  everywhere  true  that  teachers  teach  as  they 
have  been  taught.  The  principle  of  imitation  is  illus- 
trated clearly  every  day  in  every  school  room.  Teach- 
ers, like  pupils,  follow  example  more  closely  than  pre- 
cept. Providing  schools  designed  to  fit  people  for  the 
teaching  profession  have  ideal  teachers,  they  will  be 
able  to  turn  out  from  year  to  year  groups  of  teachers, 
who,  imitating  their  masters,  both  in  the  application 
of  scientific  principles  of  method  and  in  the  exercise 
of  individuality,  will  in  turn  become  ideal  teachers. 
If  the  curriculum  and  teaching  of  the  training  college 
are  rich  and  varied,  its  products  will  be  characterized  by 
efficiency  and  resourcefulness.  On  the  contrary,  should 
the  work  of  the  school  be  narrow  because  of  a cramped 
curriculum,  or  on  account  of  biased  and  shrunken  ideals 
of  the  faculty,  the  results  will  be  unsatisfactory.  The 
teachers  who  go  out  from  such  an  institution  will  be 


TEACHERS 


83 


unequal  to  the  tasks  awaiting  them — they  will  be  un- 
able to  meet  the  situation  in  the  educational  field. 

Since  it  is  a chief  occupation  of  the  training  school  to 
instill  methods  of  presentation,  there  is  great  danger  of 
becoming  mechanical,  machine-made,  or  stilted  in  one 
way  or  another.  Quite  the  opposite  must  be  the  nature 
and  work  of  the  teacher.  The  teacher  should  be  able 
to  come  down  from  the  high  platform  and  cooperate 
with  the  children;  to  find  the  individual  child  and  his 
interests  and,  in  a genuinely  sympathetic  spirit,  to 
direct  those  interests;  to  discard  set  rules,  hard  and  fast 
lines,  and  pet  theories;  and  to  open  up  to  each  child  a 
vision  of  the  fields  before.  In  order  to  do  these  things 
the  instructor  must  be  thoroughly  familar  with  child 
life:  its  nature,  mental  and  physical  make-up,  pro- 
cesses of  development,  conditions  of  growth  and  acti- 
vity, instincts,  and  hopes.  He  must  also  cherish  and 
manifest  a sympathetic  attitude  towards  youthful 
tendencies  and  aspirations,  and  be  able  to  inspire  the 
pupils  to  noble  purposes. 

The  seminaries  of  Norway,  like  those  of  other  nations, 
fall  short  of  some  of  the  conditions  of  excellence  that 
we  yearn  for.  They  do  not  include  a sufficient  amount 
of  professional  training  nor  is  that  which  is  provided 
always  the  ideal  type.  Nevertheless,  an  earnest  effort 
is  being  put  forth  to  approach  these  higher  conditions 
as  rapidly  as  possible.  The  course  of  three  years,  be- 
sides furnishing  a valuable  fund  of  instruction,  provides 
a large  amount  of  work  in  observation  and  extensive 
experience  in  teaching.  The  training  in  observation 
generally  consists  of  work  in  connection  with  the  state 


84  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


schools  (primary  and  secondary)  in  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  the  seminary".  Into  these  state  schools  the 
seminary  pupils  are  permitted  to  go  and  observe  the 
teaching  of  the  regularly  employed  instructors  as  they 
present  the  different  subjects  in  the  curriculum.  After 
having  observed  teaching  for  some  time  and  having 
carefully  discussed  class  room  procedure  with  their  own 
teachers,  they  are  required  to  specially  prepare  and 
present  some  lessons  under  the  close,  yet  sympathetic 
scrutiny  and  supervision  of  their  masters.  As  time 
passes,  more  and  more  of  this  practice  teaching  is  as- 
signed until  proficiency  is  attained  in  the  presentation 
of  subjects  to  be  taught  in  subsequent  years.  While 
these  schools  do  not  incorporate  into  their  activities 
all  things  that  seem  important,  it  must  be  said  to  their 
credit  that  they  have  done  a great  service  in  qualifying 
teachers  for  the  class  of  instruction  which  has  already 
raised  the  masses  to  their  present  place  of  literary 
distinction. 

Besides  the  institutions  providing  teachers’  training 
above  referred  to,  there  was  established  in  1907  the 
Pedagogical  seminary.  This  seminary  is  affiliated  with 
the  university  in  Christiania  but  is  not  an  organic  part 
of  it.  It  was  founded  by  act  of  the  Storthing  and  is 
supported  by  the  state.  The  function  of  the  Peda- 
gogical Seminary  is  to  provide  professional  training  of 
an  especially  practical  type  for  graduates  of  the  uni- 
versity who  intend  to  make  teaching  their  profession. 
The  length  of  the  course  is  six  months.  Instruction 
and  training  provided  in  this  institution  includes:  (1) 
lectures  in  hygiene,  psychology,  history  of  education, 


TEACHERS 


85 


and  principles  of  education;  (2)  observation  of  class 
instruction  by  masters,  whose  teaching  is  the  highest 
representation  of  the  art  in  the  city;  (3)  discussions, 
formal  and  informal,  general  and  analytic,  with  the 
headmaster  of  the  seminary  concerning  methods  of 
instruction,  class  conduct,  and  school  management; 
and  (4)  practice  teaching  under  the  supervision  of 
masters  whose  criticisms  are  given  in  such  frank  and 
sympathetic  manner  as  to  make  them  invaluable. 

As  a rule,  those  trained  in  the  teachers’  seminaries 
are  employed  in  the  primary  schools.  The  students 
who  avail  themselves  of  the  advantages  of  a university 
education  and  follow  it  by  the  training  provided  in  the 
Pedagogical  Seminary  generally  become  teachers  in 
the  secondary  schools.  The  seminary  training  in  gen- 
eral is  of  such  character  that  it  may  be  put  into  use  im- 
mediately upon  entrance  into  the  work  of  teaching. 
It  also  renders  vital  and  usable  for  purposes  of  instruc- 
tion the  information  and  intellectual  development 
gained  during  the  long-continued  and  intensive  school- 
ing preceding  such  training. 

hi.  teachers’  official  titles 

Throughout  the  school  system  of  Norway  teachers 
are  given  titles  according  to  the  nature  of  the  positions 
occupied.  In  the  primary  school  the  man  who  does 
the  supervising  work  (in  America  known  as  superin- 
tendent) is  called  the  Inspektor ; the  head  teacher  or 
principal  is  termed  the  Overlaerer;  and  the  other 
teachers,  male  and  female,  are  spoken  of  respectively 


86  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


as  Laerer  and  Laererinde.  In  the  middle  school  and 
gymnasium  the  titles  are  Rektor , Overlaerer , and  Ad - 
junkt.  The  Rektor  has  the  supervisory  work  and  some 
teaching  to  do;  the  Overlaerer  is  one  of  the  principal 
teachers  who  has  been  given  the  title  and  ranking, 
chiefly  because  of  fitness  and  long  service;  and  the 
Adjunkt  is  a regular  teacher  who  has  served  the  school 
for  five  years  or  more  and  has  received  permanent 
appointment. 

Titles  do  not  correspond  strictly  to  educational  equip- 
ment nor  do  they  depend  wholly  upon  term  of  service, 
though  both  of  these  may  be  and  generally  are  con- 
tributory factors.  For  example:  positions  in  the  mid- 
dle schools  and  gymnasia  are  open  only  to  those  who 
have  certain  educational  fitness;  the  teachers  with 
especially  strong  qualifications  and  superior  ability 
are  the  ones  most  liable  to  receive  early  promotion  to 
the  higher  class  positions;  and,  when  promotions  are 
made,  the  persons  who  have  taught  for  a long  time  en- 
joy some  advantage  over  those  with  but  slight  experi- 
ence. Titles  correspond  more  definitely  to  classes  of 
positions  occupied  than  to  any  other  thing  that  can  be 
named.  When  an  individual  is  appointed  to  a position 
carrying  a title,  that  designation  is  invariably  used  in 
connection  with  his  name.  He  is  no  longer  John  John- 
son or  Herr  Johnson,  but  Rektor  Johnson,  Overlaerer 
Johnson,  Insjpektor  Johnson,  etc. 

iv.  teachers’  tenure  of  office 

The  teacher’s  tenure  of  office  in  Norway  is  very  dif- 
ferent from  what  we  are  accustomed  to  in  America. 


TEACHERS 


87 


Positions  are  of  two  kinds — permanent  and  temporary. 
Nearly  all  appointments  in  the  past  have  been  to  per- 
manent posts.  This  means  that  the  individual  oc- 
cupies his  place  without  molestation  or  any  hint  of 
insecurity  until  he  chooses  to  resign  or  until  he  reaches 
the  age  of  retirement.*  Some  appointments  now  are 
to  temporary  positions  though  generally  they  lead  to 
permanent  ones.  Rarely,  if  ever,  does  a person  who 
makes  reasonable  success  in  a temporary  position  fail 
to  secure  an  appointment  to  a permanent  post. 

Permanency  in  position  has  a number  of  well-recog- 
nized advantages.  Security  of  situation  gives  to  the 
teacher  a release  from  the  uncertainty  which  constantly 
harasses  the  minds  of  so  many  where  frequent  change 
of  position  is  the  rule.  A lasting  appointment  enables 
one  to  get  a firm  grasp  on  the  local  situation,  and  to 
utilize  without  waste  all  the  momentum  accumulated 
while  occupying  in  a particular  place.  Furthermore, 
the  teacher  who  feels  settled  in  a position  is  able  to  estab- 
lish a home,  and  to  become  identified  with  the  com- 
munity and  its  interest. 

Since  teachers  continue  for  so  long  a time  in  a posi- 
tion, they  and  their  pupils  become  as  well  acquainted 
with  each  other  as  with  members  of  a common  family. 
It  is  interesting  to  note  how  minutely  a teacher  knows 
the  daily  life  and  habits  of  his  pupils.  While  the  rela- 
tions are  not  always  the  most  congenial,  they  are  known 
to  be  practically  inevitable  and  impossible  of  escape 
so  they  each  make  the  best  of  the  situation  and  get  the 
most  out  of  it. 

* Law  for  Secondary  Schools,  Sec.  33. 


88  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


Again,  when  children  know  that  it  will  be  their  lot  to 
come  under  the  tuition  of  a certain  instructor  who  oc- 
cupies a permanent  post  under  state  appointment,  they 
work  faithfully  and  usually  eliminate  any  criticising 
attitude.  In  fact,  long  terms  of  service  tend  to  inhibit 
the  criticisms  of  both  children  and  parents  which  some- 
times attend  teachers  who  occupy  positions  but  for  a 
short  time.  The  situation  conduces  to  a condition  of 
harmony  and  cooperative  activity.  The  children  in- 
stinctively feel  the  authority  of  the  teacher.  They 
know  that  he  has  the  support  of  local  and  state  authori- 
ties, and  that  they  will  cooperate  with  him  in  carrying 
forward  his  projects.  The  teacher,  in  turn,  recognizes 
his  responsibilities  in  the  premises  and  endeavors  to 
occupy  acceptably. 

Now  it  is  just  as  true  that  there  are  some  disadvan- 
tages to  permanency  of  positions.  Teachers  are  apt 
to  become  non-progressive  and  in  some  cases,  little 
more  than  fixtures.  Change  of  environment  stimulates 
progress  and  development.  Variety  in  teaching  ex- 
perience broadens  the  capabilities  and  increases  the 
usefulness  of  teachers.  In  addition,  children  need  the 
touch  and  influence  of  many  lives.  They  receive  great- 
er inspiration  because  of  coming  in  contact  with  the 
personality  of  a large  number  of  teachers.  However, 
too  frequent  change  is  wasteful.  It  dissipates  the 
energy  of  teachers  and  breaks  the  continuity  of  the 
work  of  the  children.  Where  the  permanency  of  posi- 
tions is  absolutely  uncertain,  the  teaching  profession 
is  transitory  and  dwindling.  Only  a few  remain  for 
long  time  in  the  work  under  such  conditions.  Many 


TEACHERS 


89 


efficient  school  men  leave  the  profession  annually  be- 
cause of  this  discouragement. 

At  present,  the  feeling  appears  to  be  general  that 
permanency  in  position  should  be  conditioned  upon  im- 
provement in  efficiency.  Evidently  a recognition  of 
this  principle  is  a basic  cause  underlying  the  increase 
in  number  of  appointments  to  temporary  teaching 
positions.  This  procedure  affords  an  excellent  oppor- 
tunity for  weeding  out  the  unfit.  At  the  same  time  it 
acts  as  a spur  inducing  growth  and  development. 
Progressive  tendencies,  along  with  other  qualifications, 
are  regarded  necessary  to  appointment  even  to  tem- 
porary posts,  and,  as  implied  before,  success  in  such 
positions  is  a prerequisite  to  appointment  to  permanent 
ones. 

In  America,  teacher’s  tenure  of  office  is  very  short. 
Each  year  there  are  many  changes  in  the  personnel  of 
teachers  throughout  the  country.  Here  we  have  the 
extreme  of  uncertainty,  while  in  Norway  they  go  to  the 
limits  of  certainty  in  teaching  positions.  Both  these 
extremes  are  unfortunate.  Could  a golden  mean  be 
reached  which  would  include  proper  incentives  to  and 
recognition  of  continuous  self-improvement  and  a 
reasonable  sense  of  security  in  permanent  occupation, 
the  profession  would  call  into  its  ranks  a large  and  more 
efficient  body  of  men  and  women,  and  the  schools  would 
make  greater  and  more  substantial  progress.  In  order 
to  illustrate  the  permanency  of  positions  in  Norway 
Table  VI  has  been  arranged. 


90  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


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TEACHERS 


91 


It  is  immediately  apparent  that  the  charges  in  the 
body  of  teachers  are  rare.  It  is  also  evident  that  nearly 
all  who  leave  the  profession  do  so  on  legitimate  grounds. 
A few  changes  result  from  transfers  in  position,  a large 
per  cent  of  withdrawals  are  retirements  after  extended 
periods  of  service,  and  many  vacancies  are  due  to  death. 
Fifty  per  cent  or  more  of  the  women  who  retire  do  so  on 
account  of  marrying,  a few  die  at  their  posts,  and  many 
retire  on  pensions.  Very  few  of  the  women  teachers 
retire  to  enter  other  lines  of  work.  While  the  table 
does  not  indicate  how  much  longer  than  thirty  years 
some  teachers  remain  in  the  service,  it  may  be  added 
here  that  examples  are  not  rare  where  individuals  con- 
tinue teaching  for  more  than  half  a century.  In  most 
cases  teachers  occupy  the  same  position  throughout 
their  teaching  experience. 

v.  teachers’  salaries 

The  salaries  received  by  teachers  do  not  average  high 
in  Norway.  Many  provisions  are  made,  however,  for 
the  reduction  of  their  living  expenses.  All  those  who 
serve  the  school  authorities  in  Norway  receive  certain 
benefits  appertaining  to  the  positions  they  hold.  For 
example:  There  is  advance  in  salaries  on  promotions 

and  after  specified  periods  of  service;  teachers  are  ex- 
empt from  expense  incident  to  particular  offices;  school 
authorities  send  all  official  communications  through 
the  mail  free  of  postage;  teachers  receive  pensions  on 
retirement  from  positions;  the  rural  school  teachers 
frequently  receive,  in  addition  to  their  salary,  a house 


92  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


to  live  in  and  sufficient  land  for  the  pasturage  of  two  or 
three  cows,  and  in  towns  and  cities  some  of  the  teachers 
have  homes  provided,  or  are  allowed  a certain  amount 
per  year  for  living  expenses.  These  and  similar  con- 
cessions and  provisions  are  extended  to  the  teachers 
according  to  enactments  of  the  state,  individual  com- 
munes, or  municipalities.  Generally,  a regular  schedule 
is  made  out  by  which  salaries  are  governed.  Table  VII 
indicates  the  salaries  for  different  positions  in  eight 
cities  of  Norway: 

The  table  is  made  up  from  the  salary  schedules  of 
typical  cities  of  various  sizes.  The  values  are  in  kroner 
(one  krone  is  practically  the  equivalent  of  twenty-seven 
cents  in  United  States  money).  We  note  that  salaries 
are  medium  in  the  beginning,  and  that  they  increase 
at  regular  intervals  until  certain  limits  are  reached. 
When  we  consider  these  limiting  salaries,  the  long  ser- 
vice generally  rendered  at  the  highest  rate,  certainty 
of  position,  and  the  pension  to  be  received  upon  re- 
tirement, we  are  prone  to  admit  that  the  advantages 
are  not  altogether  in  favor  of  the  higher  salaries  paid 
in  our  American  schools.  True,  the  American  teacher 
generally  receives  larger  returns  in  dollars  and  cents, 
but  the  Norwegian  pedagogue  is  less  mercenary  than 
his  American  cousin.  He  is  satisfied  when  his  wants 
and  those  of  his  family  are  liberally  provided  for.  His 
life  is  not  strenuous.  It  is  happy  and  filled  with  the 
joys  of  service  and  the  companionship  of  youthful 
souls.  Anxieties  are  in  large  measure  overcome  by  the 
assurance  that  the  state  will  provide  necessities  when 


TEACHERS 


93 


the  time  for  retirement  comes.  Pensions  are  graduated 
according  to  individual  necessity  as  well  as  with  refer- 
ence to  position,  term  of  service,  and  salary  at  the  time 
of  retirement. 


TABLE  VII 

Schedule  of  Salaries;  paid  to  Teachers  in  the  Primary  Schools  of  eight 

cities  in  Norway.* 


94  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


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4.  Fredrikstad  Laerer,  h.g.  2100 

Laerer,  l.g.  1400  1550  1700  1850  2000  2100 

Laererinde,  h.g.  1200 

Laererinde,  l.g.  1000  1100  1200 


5.  Drammen  Overlaerer  2600 

Laerer,  h.g.  2300  2400 

Laerer,  l.g.  1400  1600  1800  2000  2100  2300 


TEACHERS 


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Chapter  III 

COURSES  OF  STUDY  IN  STATE  SCHOOLS 

I.  INTRODUCTORY — RISE,  DEVELOPMENT,  AND  PRESENT 
FORM  OF  THE  CURRICULUM 

WE  come  now  to  a consideration  of  the 
course  of  study  in  the  school  system 
as  it  has  evolved  and  is  now  operative. 
As  was  true  throughout  other  parts  of 
Europe,  so  in  Norway,  education  during  the  middle 
ages  issued  almost  exclusively  from  the  cloister  and 
cathedral  schools  (. Dom-og  Kathedral  Skoler ),  and  in 
them  are  found  the  germs  of  most  modem  courses  of 
study.  Inasmuch  as  the  successive  steps  in  the  evolu- 
tion of  the  recent  schools  of  Europe  from  the  earlier 
forms  vary  but  little  in  the  several  countries,  and  since 
the  subject  is  already  familiar  to  nearly  all  students 
of  education,  we  omit  any  technical  discussion  of  that 
interesting  feature  of  history,  and  refer  the  reader  to 
any  of  the  several  works  treating  it  fully.  Suffice  it 
to  say,  the  aim  of  the  church  in  maintaining  these 
earlier  schools  centered  in  the  development  of  a quali- 
fied clergy  about  whom  should  be  gathered  a loyal  fol- 
lowing, well-trained  in  the  dogmas,  doctrines,  and  tradi- 
tions of  the  organization. 


96 


COURSES  OF  STUDY  IN  STATE  SCHOOLS  97 


At  this  time  the  monk  and  a small  company  of  disci- 
ples constituted  the  school.  The  little  group  studied 
together  from  day  to  day  in  and  about  the  cloister  or 
cathedral.  Among  them,  very  naturally,  certain  new 
thoughts  and  ideals  sprung  up.  The  masters  saw  the 
new  developments  if  they  were  not  themselves  parties 
to  them.  As  the  newer  thoughts  became  fixed  in  the 
youthful  minds,  individual  interests  pressed  harder 
and  harder  still  until  provision  was  made  for  extending 
the  work  of  instruction  as  well  as  for  widening  the  scope 
of  activities  within  the  schools.  While  the  aim  was 
at  first  to  give  instruction  and  discipline  in  lines  neces- 
sary to  a clerical  career,  it  changed  by  degrees  until  it 
included  branches  useful  in  legitimate  occupations 
other  than  that  of  the  clergy.  However,  the  diversify- 
ing of  school  activities  and  the  enrichment  of  the  pro- 
gram of  study  did  not  keep  pace  with  the  changes  that 
were  taking  place  in  other  phases  of  the  social  cosmos. 
A spirit  of  unrest  grew  to  proportions  almost  ungovern- 
able until  the  middle  age  renaissance  in  learning  re- 
moved the  fetters  and  brought  relief  by  effecting  sys- 
tems of  education  very  fitting  to  the  requirements. 
Great  credit  is  due  to  the  leaders  in  the  Reformation  for 
the  part  they  played  in  placing  means  for  instruction 
and  education  upon  a more  secure  and  permanent 
basis,  and  for  the  service  they  rendered  in  giving  to 
the  schools  certain  vitality  that  had  rarely,  if  ever, 
been  characteristic  of  any  similar  institution. 

The  new  type  of  school  bore  a stamp  of  general  ap- 
proval which  enabled  it  to  gain  a momentum  which  was 
not  soon  to  be  overcome.  In  fact,  the  schools  of  all  the 


98  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


more  civilized  countries  are  still  largely  dominated  by 
traditions  dating  back  to  the  epoch-making  works  of 
such  men  as  Erasmus,  Luther,  Melanchthon,  and  Sturm. 

Now  the  ideas  of  these  famous  educators  were  less 
subjected  to  change  in  Norway  than  in  the  centers  from 
whence  they  came.  Until  the  union  between  this  coun- 
try and  Denmark  came  to  an  end  in  1814,  very  little 
thought  was  given  to  advancing  educational  interests 
in  Norway.  The  work  of  her  cathedral  schools  had 
been  little  improved  during  the  centuries  that  had 
passed  since  their  establishment.  When  at  last  Nor- 
way became  a free  constitutional  state  and  these  Norse- 
men breathed  the  air  of  freedom,  felt  the  exhilaration 
of  greater  personal  liberties,  realized  that  their  destiny 
was  to  be  of  their  own  making,  and  fully  sensed  their 
important  responsibilities  in  the  situation,  they  all, 
ecclesiasts  and  politicians,  capitalists  and  laborers, 
combined  in  developing  their  schools  in  ways  calculated 
to  lift  the  masses  to  higher  intellectual  planes.  The 
changes  wrought  were  in  relation  to  what  was  to  be 
taught  and  to  the  extension  of  learning.  An  opportu- 
nity for  instruction  was  given  to  every  youth  in  the 
land. 

For  a long  time  the  ancient  languages  formed  the 
bulk  of  higher  learning,  while  in  the  primary  schools 
only  the  rudiments  of  a few  subjects  were  attempted. 
Social  tendencies  soon  required  an  increase  in  the  num- 
ber of  branches  to  be  taught,  and  also  laid  added  weight 
upon  the  importance  of  such  study  as  would  be  of  bene- 
fit in  vocational  activities.  Accordingly,  mathematics, 
history,  geography,  and  nature  study  became  more 


COURSES  OF  STUDY  IN  STATE  SCHOOLS  99 


prominent  features  in  all  schools.  One  of  the  best 
characteristics  of  the  work  throughout  is  that  the 
mother-tongue  has  been  at  all  times  a dominating  factor 
through  every  grade  of  their  schools.  Later  in  the  pro- 
cess a demand  for  the  modern  foreign  languages  was 
responded  to  favorably  and  they  took  places  in  the 
curriculum  of  the  higher  school.  These  changes  bring 
us  down  through  the  last  century  to  the  recent  forms 
in  courses  of  study  and  we  shall  introduce  the  reader 
immediately  into  the  present  situation. 

Besides  the  institutions  for  higher  learning  there  are 
now  three  distinct  sections  in  the  school  system  of  Nor- 
way, viz. : Primary  School,  Middle  School,  and  Gymna- 
sium. The  primary  school  is  designed  to  provide  edu- 
cation of  an  elementary  type  for  every  citizen  of  the 
country.  By  vital  cooperation  and  the  exercise  of  great 
care  in  organization,  distribution,  supervision,  and  in- 
spection of  these  schools,  the  people  have  overcome  illit- 
eracy and  have  reduced  truancy  to  a minimum — almost 
to  a negligible  factor.  They  are  unitedly  converted  to 
the  belief  that  an  enlightened  populace  is  a necessity  to 
the  contintiity  of  desirable  institutions,  to  the  develop- 
ment of  resources,  and  to  the  maintenance  of  worthy 
traditions.  To  secure  for  all  the  essentials  of  good  and 
intelligent  citizenship,  an  attempt  has  been  made  to 
have  the  curriculum  for  the  primary  schools  include 
the  branches  of  study  which  have  meaning  in  every 
walk  of  life,  and  which  enhance  the  efficiency  of  each 
citizen  in  his  individual  activities.  In  short,  it  is  the 
intent  that  all  the  people  shall  have  the  more  abundant 
life  which  comes  with  a thorough,  general,  elementary 


100  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


education;  and,  at  the  same  time,  that  they  shall  be 
prepared  for  the  higher  schools  which  build  on  the  broad 
foundation  of  the  common  school. 

Following  the  primary  schools  are  the  middle  schools 
wrhich  lead  still  farther  in  the  pathway  of  intellectual 
development  those  whose  situation  in  life  enables  them 
to  proceed  with  school  work.  Besides  carrying  for- 
ward the  lines  of  study  begun  in  the  lower  school  with 
added  vigor  and  exactitude,  they  include  a large  amount 
of  work  in  foreign  modem  languages.  Thus  we  see 
that  this  second  section  in  the  great  institution  of  learn- 
ing fills  in  the  elementary  framework,  enriches  the 
fund  of  information,  adds  a considerable  amount  of  cul- 
ture, and  paves  the  way  for  the  more  liberal  training 
to  followr  in  the  next  section. 

The  Gymnasium  succeeds  and  builds  directly  upon 
the  wrork  of  the  middle  school.  Its  function  is  to  pro- 
vide a liberal  culture  and  education  suited  to  the  needs 
and  desires  of  those  wdio  become  in  large  part  the  leaders 
in  all  phases  of  political,  professional,  or  other  social 
careers. 

Thus  wre  note  that  the  succeeding  steps  taken  in  the 
educational  ladder  are  in  harmony  w ith  and  dependent 
upon  preceding  work.  While  only  a correspondingly 
small  number  pass  to  the  summit,  all  the  people  enjoy 
the  advantages  of  the  broad  fundamentals  and  generali- 
zations which  lie  at  the  base  of  their  educational  sys- 
tem and  equip  very  wrell  for  the  common  wralks  and  voca- 
tions of  life.  In  our  discussion  we  shall  separate  the 
wrork  of  the  three  sections  and  consider  them  one  at  a 
time.  It  seems  advisable  to  handle  them  in  this  way, 


COURSES  OF  STUDY  IN  STATE  SCHOOLS  101 


and  we  believe  that  a more  adequate  conception  of  the 
work  as  a whole  will  be  obtained  by  offering  first  the 
part  affecting  all  the  people  and  dealing  with  the  prim- 
ary schools. 

II.  THE  PRIMARY  SCHOOLS 

The  primary  schools  are  of  two  kinds, — those  special- 
ly designed  for  the  rural  sections  of  the  country  and 
others  provided  for  the  towns  and  cities,  the  latter 
being  somewhat  richer  in  curricula,  more  complete  in 
organization,  and  more  thorough  in  operation  than  the 
former.  Considering  the  fact  that  such  uniformity 
characterizes  the  courses  of  study  in  the  various  schools, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  present  but  one  outline  for  each 
class  of  schools.  An  effort  has  been  made  to  select 
courses  that  are  representative  and  which  clearly  set 
forth  typical  conditions.  Table  VIII  gives  the  pro- 
gram of  work  offered  in  one  of  the  rural  communes,  and 
shows  the  number  of  hours  per  week  devoted  to  each 
branch  of  study  for  the  seven  years  in  the  course.  Just 
after  the  legislative  act  of  1889,  the  Department  sent 
out  a “normal  plan”  which  served  as  a guide  in  ar- 
ranging the  time-tables  for  rural  municipalities.  As  a 
result  great  uniformity  exists. 


102  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


TABLE  VIII 

Table  Showing  the  Number  of  Hours  per  Week  for 
Each  Branch  of  Instruction  in  the  Course  of  Study  in 
Fredrikvaern  Commune.* 

Year  I.  II.  III.  IV.  V.  VI.  VII.  Total 


Religion 

Norwegian 

Mathematics 

Geography 

History 

Nature  Study 

Writing 

Drawing 

Vocal  Music 

Manual  Training 

Gymnastics 

Total 


7 7 5 6 

10  8 8 8 

6 5 4 6 

2 2 

2 2 

2 3 12 

5 5 4 4 

1 2 

2 12 
2 2 

2 


6 6 6 43 
8 6 6 54 
4 6 6 37 
3 3 3 13 

3 3 3 13 
2 2 2 14 
2 2 2 24 
2 2 2 9 
2 2 2 11 

4 6 6 20 
2 2 2 8 


30  30  30  38  38  40  40  246 


The  program  just  above  is  normal  and  typical  in 
every  respect.  The  schools  are  very  uniform  in  their 
work  and,  as  previously  stated,  no  further  tables  are 
necessary  in  order  to  give  a concise  idea  of  the  work 
generally  presented  in  the  rural  districts  of  the  entire 
country. 

♦Year  1905. 


COURSES  OF  STUDY  IN  STATE  SCHOOLS  103 


The  second  program  selected  is  the  one  used  in  the 
primary  schools  of  Christiania.*  The  schools  of  this 
city  are  among  the  best  and  are  taken  as  models  for  a 
number  in  other  cities  and  towns. 

*Year  1910-1911. 


104  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


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COURSES  OF  STUDY  IN  STATE  SCHOOLS  105 


The  comparative  table  on  page  106  clearly  evidences 
the  similarities  already  referred  to  and,  at  the  same  time, 
serves  to  indicate  all  variations.  However,  in  the  mak- 
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pares the  pupil  fully  for  work  in  the  middle  school. 


106  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


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COURSES  OF  STUDY  IN  STATE  SCHOOLS  107 


Religion  The  four  R’s  in  Norway’s  educa- 

Reading  tional  system  form  the  center  of  their 

Reckoning  educational  endeavors.  Only  a super- 
Riting  ficial  glance  at  the  tables  presented  is 

necessary  in  order  to  notice  their 
prominence  throughout  the  course  of  study.  While 
the  amount  of  time  devoted  to  them  is  in  itself  a suffi- 
ciently strong  indication  of  their  predominance,  we 
must  also  carry  in  mind  an  allowance  for  closest  pos- 
sible correlation  between  them  as  constant  and  addi- 
tional factors  along  the  same  line.  Bearing  these 
things  in  mind  we  enter  at  once  upon  the  discussion 
of  the  course  of  study  or  school  plan.  Though  the 
programs  presented  and  digest  of  plans  following  or 
accompanying  are  taken  from  particular  schools,  the 
discussion  throughout  will  be  general  unless  otherwise 
specified.  For  varied  reasons,  but  chiefly  because  they 
are  typical,  specific,  and  concrete,  the  courses  of  study 
used  in  Christiania — primary  and  secondary — are  chos- 
en as  illustrations.  The  following  is  not  a verbatim 
translation  of  Christiania’s  plan  of  instruction  but  an 
abbreviated  statement  of  the  work  as  outlined  in  their 
published  school  plan  (Skoleplan) . I have  endeavored 
to  select  the  more  vital  points  throughout  and  to 
represent  them  as  exactly  as  a condensed  version  ren- 
ders possible.  Where  inaccuracies  or  omissions  occur 
they  are  due  to  a demand  for  economy — the  things 
omitted  not  being  regarded  as  absolute  essentials  to  a 
correct  representation  of  the  intent  and  spirit  of  the 
work  as  carried  on. 


108  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


OUTLINE  OF  SUBJECTS  OF  INSTRUCTION 

Religion 

Aim.  The  aims  of  instruction  in  religion  are  to  de- 
velop the  religious  instincts  of  the  children  and  to  in- 
still in  them  a recognition  of  Christianity,  out  of  which 
may  grow  a healthy  Christian  life  and  a clear  concep- 
tion of  the  church. 

To  attain  these,  an  effort  is  made  to  impart  the  fol- 
lowing fund  of  information: 

Definite  acquaintance  with  the  more  important  parts 
of  Bible  history,  with  the  chief  events  in  church  his- 
tory, and  with  the  catechism  according  to  the  Evan- 
gelical Lutheran  creed. 

First  Division 

Class  I.  (Six  half  hour  periods  weekly.)  Instruc- 
tion during  the  beginning  weeks  consists  in  simple 
stories,  songs,  hymns,  prayers,  and  conversations  de- 
signed to  impart  a knowledge  of  Christianity,  ethics, 
and  morals;  to  effect  definite  connections  with  previous 
home  training;  and  to  awaken  and  develop  religious 
and  moral  attitudes  in  the  children  preparatory  to  the 
more  direct  instruction  to  follow. 

The  real  instruction  in  Christianity  or  religion  begins 
with  Bible  stories  selected  from  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments and  specially  adapted  to  the  understanding  of  the 
children  and  their  ability  to  master  the  same.  The 
following  stories  are  among  the  ones  used:  The  Story 


COURSES  OF  STUDY  IN  STATE  SCHOOLS  109 


of  Joseph,  Samuel  and  Hannah,  David  and  Goliath, 
The  Birth  of  Jesus,  The  Three  Wise  Men,  Jesus  in  the 
Temple,  Jesus  Feeding  the  Five  Thousand,  Jesus 
Raising  the  Widow’s  Son,  Jesus  Blessing  the  Children, 
Jesus  Teaching  the  Disciples  How  to  Pray.  The  stories 
are  presented  orally  and  explained  and  elucidated  in 
such  a way  that  the  children  may  receive  clear  and  vivid 
pictures  of  the  persons  and  events  referred  to,  appreciate 
their  connections  with  the  Holy  Scriptures,  and  be 
able  to  rehearse  the  narratives  in  an  intelligent  manner. 
Whenever  possible  the  religious  or  moral  content  of 
the  conversation  should  be  brought  to  a climax  in  a 
simple  passage  of  Scripture,  a response  from  the  cate- 
chism, or  a verse  of  some  hymn,  which  should  be 
memorized. 

Class  II.  (Six  half  hour  periods  weekly.)  Bible 
stories  from  Old  and  New  Testaments  taken  mainly 
from  the  time  of  the  patriarchs  and  Moses.  Among 
them  are  the  following : 

From  Old  Testament:  The  Creation  and  Eden,  The 
Fall,  Cain  and  Abel,  The  Flood,  The  Call  of  Abraham, 
Abraham  and  Lot,  The  Birth  and  Offering  of  Isaac, 
The  Marriage  of  Isaac,  Esau  and  Jacob,  Isaac  Blessing 
His  Sons,  Jacob’s  Flight,  The  Birth  and  Rearing  of 
Moses,  The  Call  of  Moses,  Moses  Before  Pharaoh,  The 
Exodus  from  Egypt. 

From  New  Testament:  The  Birth  of  Jesus,  Jesus’ 

Entry  into  Jerusalem,  Jesus  Suffering  in  the  Garden 
of  Gethsemane,  Jesus’  Death  on  the  Cross,  The  Burial 
of  Jesus,  The  Resurrection  of  Jesus,  The  Outpouring 
of  the  Holy  Ghost.  Instruction  is  exclusively  oral. 


110  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


Historical  references  are  disregarded.  Historical  situa- 
tions are  frequently  clarified  by  references  to  the  his- 
tory of  civilization  and  geography.  New  phases  of 
God’s  dealings  with  men  and  their  attitudes  toward 
Him  are  singled  out  and  presented  for  consideration. 
Passages  of  Scripture  and  others  from  the  catechism 
or  hymns  are  treated  in  connection  with  the  Bible 
stories  as  they  are  told. 

Class  III.  (Six  half  hour  periods  weekly.)  Bibli- 
cal history  up  to  and  including  the  time  of  Solomon, 
characteristic  stories  from  the  prophetic  period,  and 
selections  of  Scripture  from  the  New  Testament  de- 
signated officially  for  study  in  reference  to  certain 
church  holidays.  Among  the  topics  included  we  find: 
The  Tower  of  Babel,  God’s  Covenant  with  Abra- 
ham, The  Visit  of  the  Three  Men,  The  Lord  Visits 
Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  Jacob  Serving  Laban,  Jacob’s 
Return,  The  Travel  to  Sinai,  The  Giving  of  the  Law, 
The  Unfaithfulness  of  the  People,  The  Travels  from 
Sinai  to  Jordan,  The  Death  of  Moses,  Joshua  Leading 
the  People  into  Canaan,  Gideon,  Ruth,  Samuel,  Saul 
Becomes  King,  Saul  Rejected,  God  Chooses  David  to 
be  King,  David  and  Jonathan,  Saul  Pursuing  David, 
The  Death  of  Saul,  David  Chosen  to  be  King  by  the 
People,  The  Fall  and  Restitution  of  David,  Absalom, 
The  Last  Days  of  David’s  Life,  Solomon,  Elias,  Jonah, 
Daniel.  The  matter  covered  in  Classes  I and  II  is 
again  taken  up,  to  which  the  above  is  added  in  historical 
connection.  To  this  material  Biblical  geography  and 
cultural  history  are  added  as  needed,  while  hymns, 
passages  of  Scripture,  or  selections  from  the  catechism 


COURSES  OF  STUDY  IN  STATE  SCHOOLS  111 


are  continually  used.  Through  constant  reviews  the 
moral  and  religious  contents  from  the  various  sources 
are  connected  into  successive  groups,  each  group  center- 
ing around  the  life  of  some  prominent  Biblical  character. 
Instruction  is  chiefly  oral,  though  some  reading  from 
text  is  a privilege  which  may  be  indulged  in  as  an  aid. 
A certain  amount  of  catechismal  work  may  be  assigned 
as  home  lessons. 

Second  Division 

Class  IV.  (Boys  four  hours,  girls  three  hours,  weekly.) 
New  Testament  history  centering  in  the  stories  of  Jesus 5 
childhood,  His  miracles,  and  His  easier  parables.  New 
stories  taken  up:  The  Birth  of  John  the  Baptist  Fore- 
told, The  Birth  of  Jesus  Foretold,  The  Birth  of  John 
the  Baptist,  Jesus  Presented  in  the  Temple,  The  Flight 
into  Egypt,  Appearance  of  John  the  Baptist,  The  Bap- 
tism of  Jesus,  Jesus  is  Tempted,  The  First  Disciples 
Come  to  Jesus,  The  Marriage  in  Cana,  Jesus  Visits 
Nazareth,  Jesus  Choosing  the  Twelve  Apostles,  Jesus 
Heals  the  Centurion’s  Servant,  The  Death  of  John  the 
Baptist,  Jesus  Healing  the  Palsied,  Jesus  Raising 
Jairus’  Daughter,  The  Woman  of  Canaan,  Parable  of 
the  Unmerciful  Servant,  The  Good  Samaritan,  Jesus 
at  the  House  of  Martha  and  Mary,  Parables  of  the  Lost 
Sheep  and  the  Lost  Coin,  Parable  of  the  Prodigal  Son, 
Dives  and  Lazarus,  Healing  of  the  Ten  Lepers,  Parable 
of  the  Publican  and  Pharisee,  Parable  of  the  Marriage 
of  the  King’s  Son,  Easter,  Pentecost.  The  extent  to 
which  details  of  stories,  Biblical  geography,  cultural 


112  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


history,  and  passages  of  Scripture  or  catechism  are  in- 
cluded is  governed  by  the  maturity  and  education  of  the 
children.  In  this  class  considerable  attention  is  given 
to  the  reading  of  hymns  and  New  Testament  Scrip- 
tures from  the  four  Gospels  (elucidating  obscure  pas- 
sages and  difficult  sentences),  to  connections  between 
Bible  stories  and  history,  and  to  chronological  sequence. 

Class  V . (Boys  four  hours,  girls  three  hours,  weekly.) 
Continued  instruction  in  New  Testament  history, 
especially  the  parables  of  Jesus  and  the  story  of  his 
passion  and  resurrection.  To  this  is  added  the  account 
of  the  founding  of  the  first  Christian  church  and  its 
spread  by  the  efforts  of  the  chief  apostles.  The  work 
includes  the  following  new  stories:  Jesus  and  Nicho- 

demus,  Jesus  and  the  Samaritan  Woman,  Jesus  Com- 
mences to  Speak  in  Parables,  The  Transfiguration  of 
Jesus,  Peter’s  Confession,  The  Man  Bom  Blind,  Jesus 
the  Good  Shepherd,  The  Raising  of  Lazarus,  Jesus  in 
the  House  of  Zacchaeus,  Jesus  in  Bethany,  Parable  of 
the  Labourers  in  the  Vineyard,  Parable  of  the  Ten 
Virgins,  Washing  of  Feet,  The  Lord’s  Supper,  Jesus  in 
Gethsemane,  Jesus  Before  the  High  Priest  and  the 
Sanhedrin,  Jesus  Before  Pilate  and  Herod,  Crucifixion 
of  Jesus,  Christ’s  Burial,  The  Resurrection,  Jesus  Ap- 
pears to  the  Two  Disciples  on  the  Way  to  Emmaus, 
He  Appears  to  the  Disciples  in  Jerusalem,  He  Appears 
at  the  Sea  of  Tiberias,  The  Great  Commission  to  the 
Disciples,  His  Ascension,  The  Outpouring  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  on  Pentecost,  The  First  Miracle  and  First  Perse- 
cution, Stephen,  The  Ethiopian  Eunuch,  Saul,  Cornelius, 
Paul  Preaching  the  Gospel  to  the  Gentiles, 


COURSES  OF  STUDY  IN  STATE  SCHOOLS  113 


Bible  reading,  the  catechism,  Bible  history,  and 
hymns  are  studied  as  in  former  classes,  but  more  in- 
tensively. Besides  the  catechism,  passages  of  Scrip- 
ture, containing  great  Christian  and  moral  truths  are 
to  be  impressed  and  memorized  verbatim.  Contin- 
uous reviews  through  the  years  enable  the  children  to 
connect  several  stories  into  groups,  and  to  acquire  com- 
plete information  regarding  the  life  and  work  of  Christ. 
A small  instruction  book  is  used.  First  part  and 
Article  I of  the  second  part  are  studied. 

Third  Division 

Class  VI.  (Four  hours  weekly.)  Bible  history  and 
Old  Testament  taken  up  simultaneously — Bible  read- 
ing and  ecclesiastical  history  alternating.  A deeper 
knowledge  of  sacred  history  is  sought.  Striking  illus- 
trations of  God’s  plan  of  salvation  operating  among 
the  Jews  are  given,  designed  to  enable  the  children  to 
appreciate  the  redemptive  meaning  of  Old  Testament 
history.  Emphasis  is  placed  on  the  period  just  pre- 
ceding the  time  of  Christ.  New  stories  introduced: 
The  Division  of  the  Kingdom,  Elisha,  The  Downfall 
of  the  Kingdom  of  Israel,  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  The  Fall 
of  the  Kingdom  of  Judah,  The  Jews  under  Babylonian 
Captivity,  Their  Return  from  Captivity,  The  Last 
Four  Hundred  Years. 

Familiarity  with  Old  Testament  Scriptures  and  his- 
tory, Biblical  geography,  and  cultural  history  is  to  be 
gained.  Articles  II  and  III  of  the  second  part,  and 
the  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  parts  of  the  instruction  book 
are  taken  up. 


114  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


Class  VII.  (Three  hours  weekly.)  One  Gospel — 
Matthew — is  read  connectedly  and  followed  by  a treat- 
ment of  selected  parts  from  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles 
in  connection  with  the  work  of  Biblical  history  in  the 
fourth  and  fifth  grades.  All  materials  previously 
gathered  from  the  various  sources  are  again  taken  up, 
applied,  and  centered. 

Narratives  relating  to  important  periods  of  the 
church.  Among  them: — The  Persecutions  (under 
Nero,  Poly  carpus),  The  Victory  of  Christianity  (Con- 
stantine), The  Christian  Ceremonies,  Augustine,  Her- 
mits and  Monks,  The  Spread  of  Christianity,  The 
Popes,  The  Crusades,  The  Preparation  for  the  Reforma- 
tion, The  Lutheran  Reformation  (Luther,  the  Jesuits, 
the  Catholic  Mission),  The  Lutheran  Church  in  the 
Seventeenth  and  Eighteenth  Centuries,  in  the  Eight- 
eenth and  Nineteenth  Centuries,  The  Mission,  Bible 
Societies. 

The  aim  in  this  division  is  to  give  information  re- 
garding the  development  of  the  church  in  general,  and 
of  the  Lutheran  church  in  particular.  Narratives  are 
grouped  around  great  central  characters — Christian 
personages.  A realization  of  the  lofty  aims  of  Chris- 
tianity on  the  part  of  the  children  together  with  an 
appreciation  of  their  duties  and  responsibilities  as  mem- 
bers of  the  Christian  church  is  the  intent.  By  means  of 
an  instruction  book  the  main  divisions  of  church  his- 
tory, general  history,  and  the  history  of  Norway  are 
correlated.  Information  contained  in  the  hymn  book 
acquaints  the  children  with  the  ceremonial  order  of  the 
ecclesiastical  year  as  well  as  with  the  contents  and  order 


COURSES  OF  STUDY  IN  STATE  SCHOOLS  115 


of  the  book  itself.  The  study  of  previously  memorized 
hymns  and  verses  is  emphasized  and  enlarged  upon. 

It  is  to  be  remembered  that  in  Norway  church  and 
state  are  united.  Religious  and  scholastic  interests 
are  under  the  direction  of  the  Department  of  Ecclesias- 
tical and  Educational  affairs.  The  minister  of  this 
department  of  State  is  one  of  the  King’s  cabinet.  Here 
we  find  one  of  the  numerous  attempts  at  the  solution 
of  the  vexing  question  of  moral  instruction,  or,  to  be 
more  exact,  religious  instruction  in  the  public  schools. 
While  the  provisions  for  this  teaching  are  not  faultless, 
and  though  their  course  of  instruction  could  not  be 
adopted  for  use  in  America  with  its  medley  of  religious 
prejudices,  yet  we  must  acknowledge  that  they  are  well 
adapted  to  the  needs  and  desires  of  the  people  served. 
The  citizenship  of  the  country  is  homogenous  religiously, 
almost  universally  Lutheran,  and  their  traditions  mili- 
tate against  any  change  in  religious  creed.  The  teach- 
ing of  religion  in  the  schools  has  been  the  practice  for 
generations,  the  instruction  is  taken  as  a matter  of 
course,  and  it  exerts  its  beneficient  influences  upon  all. 

There  are  a number  of  important  features  of  this 
moral  instruction  which  press  their  claims  for  special 
mention,  but  we  cannot  discuss  them  all.  A few,  how- 
ever, demand  some  attention.  The  statement  of  the 
proverb,  that  as  the  twig  is  bent  so  will  the  tree  be  in- 
clined, has  been  borne  out  in  practice  times  without 
number.  Here,  it  seems  to  me,  is  one  more  illustration. 
Throughout  their  whole  school  life — that  receptive, 
appropriating,  formative  period — the  children  have 
constantly  before  them  ideals  that  are  elevating,  exam- 


116  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


pies  that  are  inspiring,  and  admonitions  that  tend  to 
create  and  develop  within  them  an  ambition  to  excel 
in  beauty  of  character.  That  the  morals  of  society 
are  not  kept  more  nearly  pure  by  this  procedure  seems 
a psychological  impossibility.  Again  a rather  success- 
ful attempt  is  made  to  have  the  home  and  school  co- 
operate along  the  lines  of  personal  purity.  In  fact  the 
home,  the  school,  and  the  church  join  hands  and  sup- 
plement each  other  in  all  efforts  in  religious  and  moral 
training.  True  it  is  that  striking  examples  of  nobility 
of  character,  high  ideals,  and  moral  worth  abound  in 
profane  history  as  well  as  in  sacred,  in  secular  life  as 
well  as  in  religious,  in  living  characters  as  truly  as  in 
those  of  past  ages,  but  the  school  system  of  Norway 
provides  ample  opportunity  for  presenting  all  of  these 
things  in  connection  with  their  regular  instruction  in 
the  various  subjects  taught,  and,  in  addition,  furnishes 
particularized  instruction  which  makes  a specialty 
of  moral  and  religious  development.  It  seems  impera- 
tive that,  when  these  ennobling  lessons  are  thus  vividly 
presented,  the  powers  of  imitation  and  habit  should  com- 
bine in  the  creation  of  stronger  and  nobler  characters. 

Nevertheless,  when  religious  instruction  is  made  a 
requirement,  it  too  frequently  becomes  formal  and 
literal  rather  than  spiritual  and  lifegiving.  That  this 
great  misfortune  is  the  case  in  some  of  the  secondary 
schools  of  Norway  is  an  indictment  which  cannot  be 
denied.  However,  in  the  primary  schools  the  instruc- 
tion is  fruitful  and  important.  As  a consequence  of 
these  conditions  the  statement  is  common  among  many 
that  in  looking  back  over  the  years  of  religious  instruc- 


COURSES  OF  STUDY  IN  STATE  SCHOOLS  117 


tion  they  recall  numerous  happy  instances  of  earnest, 
heartfelt  prayer  and  Bible  stories  accompanied  by  in- 
tense feeling  on  the  part  of  the  teacher.  Other  experi- 
ences reveal  the  fact  that  some  of  the  teaching  profes- 
sion had  not  the  sincerity  and  feeling  back  of  their  in- 
struction required  in  order  to  give  vitality  and  meaning 
to  the  lessons  presented. 

The  entire  question  of  instruction  in  morals  in  our 
public  schools  is  one  of  pressing  importance.  It  is 
being  agitated  in  many  lands  today  and  a solution  is 
sorely  needed.  Were  all  classes  of  society  united  as  to 
what  should  be  included  in  this  instruction  the  matter 
would  adjust  itself  very  readily.  However,  social  con- 
ditions in  a single  nation  are  more  or  less  diverse,  and 
between  different  nations  still  greater  breaks  are  to  be 
found.  In  fact  the  ideals  and  conceptions  of  society 
are  so  varied  that  no  one  present  system  would  suffice 
for  all.  Could  a code  of  ethics  be  formulated  which 
would  meet  universal  approval  then  its  adoption  and 
use  might  be  hoped  for.  Until  then  each  nation  must 
necessarily  follow  the  plan  which  seems  best  adapted 
to  its  social  requirements.  As  already  stated,  the  peo- 
ple of  Norway  are  nearly  all  adherents  to  the  Lutheran 
creed  so  there  are  very  few  dissenters  from  the  common 
rule.  Provision  is  made  in  the  law  that  those  who  do 
not  adhere  to  the  state  church  and  object  to  receiving 
instruction  in  this  particular  line  may,  upon  request  of 
parent  or  guardian,  be  excused  from  such  instruction.* 
* Law  for  City  Schools,  Sec.  4. 


118  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


Norwegian 

Aim . It  is  the  aim  of  the  instruction  in  Norwegian 
to  further  the  mental  development  of  children,  especi- 
ally their  linguistic  ability.  In  this  course  of  activity 
they  should  acquire : 

(1)  Efficiency  in  apprehending  and  assimilating 
what  they  hear  or  read,  confident  readiness  in  reading, 
plain  articulation,  and  correct  and  natural  accentua- 
tion. 

(2)  Efficiency  in  expressing  themselves  orally  and 
in  writing  without  making  any  serious  errors  in  the 
common  usage  of  language  or  the  rules  of  composition. 

(8)  Efficiency  in  the  use  of  the  grammar  of  the 
mother-tongue  which  is  necessary  for  the  above  meas- 
ure of  attainments. 


First  Division 

Class  I.  (Boys  twelve  hours,  girls  eleven  hours, 
weekly.)  A suitable  number  (twelve  or  fifteen)  of  in- 
teresting children ’s  stories  are  told  and  utilized  for  the 
special  purposes  of  widening  the  circle  of  the  children’s 
imagination  and  developing  in  them  ability  in  observa- 
tion, conception,  and  expression.  An  effort  is  made  to 
render  the  general  contents  of  the  stories  lucid  through 
explanations,  while  the  features  arousing  special  interest 
in  the  minds  of  the  pupils  are  made  the  objects  of  more 
detailed  conversation.  An  effort  is  made  to  train  the 
children  in  correct,  free,  and  easy  expression  in  con- 


COURSES  OF  STUDY  IN  STATE  SCHOOLS  119 


nected  sentences,  and  to  develop  in  them  the  ability 
to  rehearse  their  stories  freely  and  connectedly. 

Reading . The  aim  is  ability  to  read  the  primer 
(ABC-eri)  with  assurance  and  in  a clear  tone,  properly 
articulating  and  accenting  each  word  and  syllable. 

Written  exercises.  The  object  of  the  written  work 
is  to  teach  the  children  to  write  words  and  simple  sen- 
tences which  have  just  been  read  orally  or  have  been 
seen  in  the  primer  or  on  the  blackboard. 

Class  II.  (Boys  ten  hours,  girls  eight  hours,  weekly.) 
Twenty  or  thirty  of  the  most  interesting  and  valuable 
selections  (prose  and  poetry)  contained  in  the  reader 
are  made  the  objects  of  special  and  thorough  treatment. 
Comments,  questions,  elucidating  explanations,  and 
conversations  are  means  employed  in  securing  a vivid 
appreciation  of  the  contents  and  in  developing  ability 
in  their  easy  rehearsal.  The  other  pieces  are  treated 
in  a more  cursory  mariner,  only  the  larger  views  and 
the  more  general  understanding  of  them  being  at- 
tempted. 

Special  attention  is  given  to  having  all  readings  slow 
with  loud,  plain,  and  correct  articulation  and  proper 
accentuation.  Habitual  mistakes  are  carefully  elim- 
inated. Story  telling  is  also  a feature  of  the  year’s 
work. 

Written  exercises , made  up  of  sentences  and  short 
parts  of  readings,  conversations,  or  stories  are  given 
frequently  and  for  short  periods.  Here  the  names  of 
letters  and  spelling  are  attended  to  with  great  care. 

Class  III.  (Boys  eight  hours,  girls  seven  hours, 
weekly.)  Twenty  or  thirty  paragraphs  from  the 
reader  are  given  special  attention — the  remainder 


120  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


cursory.  The  plan  of  work  is  about  the  same  as  for 
Class  II.  Considerable  attention  is  given  to  the  re- 
hearsing of  the  reading  lesson  by  the  pupils.  Some 
reproductions  are  to  be  quite  detailed  and  exact  though 
they  are  not  to  be  given  in  the  exact  words  of  the  text. 
Still  other  selections  receive  more  general  treatment. 
A few  of  the  most  pleasing  poems  should  be  memorized. 
Greater  readiness  in  slow  and  even  reading  with  loud 
and  clear  expression  and  proper  natural  accentuation 
should  be  sought. 

Written  exercises.  Selections  from  the  language  work 
giving  special  and  rather  extended  attention  to  spell- 
ing, punctuation,  and  grammatical  constructions  and 
forms.  The  teacher  sets  examples  of  correct  punctua- 
tion, etc. 

Second  Division 

Class  IV.  (Five  hours  weekly.)  A select  number 
(20-30)  of  pieces  from  the  reader  treated  as  in  the  former 
classes,  though  more  exhaustively;  and,  in  addition, 
quite  a wide  range  of  selections  chosen  for  more  cur- 
sory reading.  A considerable  amount  of  information 
regarding  the  topics  treated  and  explanations  of  literary 
expressions  should  form  important  parts  of  the  instruc- 
tion in  this  class.  Here,  as  in  both  preceding  and  suc- 
ceeding classes,  it  should  be  the  aim  to  have  the  chil- 
dren make  their  meanings  plain  when  conversing  upon 
the  selections  read,  at  least  to  the  degree  of  their  ability 
and  development.  Parts  of  former  conversations  on 
various  topics  should  also  be  recalled  and  woven  into 
their  discussions. 


COURSES  OF  STUDY  IN  STATE  SCHOOLS  121 


Written  exercises.  These  shall  include  features  pre- 
viously studied,  and  introduce  more  detailed  and  finer 
discriminations  in  grammatical  usages  and  forms. 

Class  V.  (Boys  four  hours,  girls  five  hours,  weekly.) 
Exhaustive  study  of  a few  selections  and  cursory  read- 
ing in  large  quantities  as  before.  Careful  and  abundant 
training  in  oral  expression.  Specific  and  detailed  re- 
hearsal of  topics  discussed  in  which  an  increasing  amount 
of  knowledge  gained  through  study,  experience,  and 
thought  is  utilized.  Short  stories  are  read.  Poems 
are  memorized.  Progress  in  clear  and  distinct  articula- 
tion and  easy  and  natural  emphasis  in  harmony  with 
refined  speech  is  continuously  a requirement. 

Written  exercises.  A continuation  of  former  exer- 
cises and  a considerable  amount  of  copying,  or  the  writ- 
ing of  abstracts  of  lesson  content,  especially  during  the 
second  half  year.  Orthographic,  grammatical,  and 
rhetorical  forms  are  entered  into  more  exhaustively 
and  their  niceties  urged.  Through  continued  practice 
in  preparing  and  writing  compositions,  extra  work  in 
copying,  and  special  study  of  orthography  and  punctua- 
tion, the  children,  by  the  close  of  this  their  fifth  year  of 
schooling,  should  be  quite  capable  in  punctuation  as 
well  as  spelling,  though  they  should  not  be  expected  to 
spell  and  punctuate  independently  with  accuracy. 

Third  Division 

Class  VI.  (Boys  five  hours,  girls  six  hours,  weekly.) 
Reading  from  a selected  portion  of  the  reader.  Con- 
versations, information,  explanations,  and  linguistic 


122  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


elucidations  are  to  be  entered  into  according  to  neces- 
sity. Increasing  stress  is  here  laid  on  the  work  of  draw- 
ing out  the  thoughts,  ideas,  and  knowledge  of  the  pupils, 
and  of  inciting  them  to  more  independent,  intellectual 
effort. 

Written  exercises.  Continued  as  previously  though 
introducing  larger  amounts  of  independently  selected 
forms  of  expression  and  insisting  on  greater  accuracy 
in  punctuation.  Letter  writing  is  added. 

Class  VII . (Five  hours  weekly.)  Selections  from 
the  reader  and  supplementary  reading  from  recommend- 
ed books  calculated  to  awaken,  develop,  and  educate. 
Special  attention  given  to  the  most  important  authors. 

Written  exercises.  Compositions  on  topics  of  in- 
interest, letter  writing,  business  correspondence  includ- 
ing applications,  invoices, advertisements,  and  telegrams. 

The  methods  employed  in  presenting  the  mother- 
tongue  are  quite  plainly  set  forth  in  the  foregoing  out- 
line. Though  the  content  is  not  so  specifically  defined, 
the  general  lines  are  indicated  in  such  a way  as  to  give 
very  adequate  insight  thereinto.  Some  of  the  methods 
of  presentation  seem  somewhat  cumbersome  and  rather 
antiquated.  This  impression  is  due  chiefly  to  ter- 
minology. The  actual  work  in  the  schoolrooms  is 
flexible,  free,  and,  as  a rule,  attractive.  The  latitude 
granted  to  the  teachers  in  all  their  work  admits  of  almost 
unlimited  individual  initiative.  Many  of  their  teachers 
are  quite  expert  in  the  most  modem  methods. 

The  utilitarian  idea  which  pervades  every  phase  of 
their  school  work  is  especially  noticeable  in  the  teaching 
of  their  own  language.  In  harmony  with  this  idea,  let 


COURSES  OF  STUDY  IN  STATE  SCHOOLS  123 


me  call  attention  to  the  fact  that,  from  the  first,  constant 
use  is  made  of  every  attainment  in  both  oral  and  written 
form.  The  oral  work  embraces  the  reading  of  the  text, 
reading  from  the  blackboard,  and  conversational  exer- 
cises on  the  special  topics  being  considered.  Written 
work  on  the  same  lessons  include  copying  of  certain 
selections  or  parts  of  them  and  original  expressions 
in  regard  to  the  contents  of  lessons  read.  In  the  ad- 
vanced grades  these  written  exercises  become  more  and 
more  extended  and  complicated  until  they  amount  to 
complete  essays.  Special  attention  is  given  to  correct 
forms  of  expression  and  to  the  acquirement  of  habits 
of  clear  and  distinct  enunciation.  The  child,  who  from 
his  earliest  school  days  becomes  habituated  to  exact 
pronunciations,  is  very  liable — almost  sure — to  spell 
correctly;  and,  when  constant  use  is  made  of  the  lan- 
guage in  written  exercises,  the  accepted  and  approved 
forms  of  expression  become  the  fixed  usages. 

Now  their  treatment  of  the  mother- tongue  is  a com- 
bination of  our  reading,  spelling,  language  lessons, 
grammar,  rhetoric,  and  literature,  all  taught  in  their 
natural  order  as  they  arise  through  actual  use.  In- 
cidentally, vast  amounts  of  biography,  history,  geog- 
raphy, and  natural  science  as  well  as  writing  are  in- 
cluded. The  richness  of  content  and  thoroughness  of 
treatment  deserve  careful  consideration  in  the  writing 
of  courses  and  still  more  in  their  application.  Speciali- 
zation in  phases  of  a single  subject  in  lower  schools 
nearly  always  means  waste  of  energy,  scattering  of 
forces,  and  disappointment  in  the  end.  On  the  con- 
trary, unification  and  close  correlation  result  in  economy 


124  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


of  time  and  effort,  and  issue  in  more  worthy  attain- 
ments. The  several  fields  of  thought  are  already  too 
much  isolated  from  each  other,  and  unless  some  guards 
are  erected  the  individual  fields  also  will  be  broken  up 
and  their  distinctive  phases  so  divorced  from  one  an- 
other that  their  cooperative  tendencies  and  values  will 
become  void  and  their  relationships  will  be  lost  sight 
of.  Norwegian  is  easily  the  preponderant  study  in 
Norway’s  schools,  but,  since  it  is  so  inclusive,  it  prob- 
ably deserves  the  large  amount  of  time  devoted  to  it. 

The  long  lists  of  supplementary  readings  now  pro- 
vided in  our  American  schools  exert  a wholesome  in- 
fluence. Their  constant  revision  and  extension  fur- 
nish materials  which  in  the  hands  of  skilled  teachers, 
guarantee  to  the  pupils  sure  knowledge  and  ability  in 
the  use  of  the  mother- tongue.  The  limitless  resources 
in  English  literature,  America’s  lavish  provision  for 
higher  education  and  professional  training,  and  the 
freedom  granted  to  our  teaching  profession  leave  the 
teachers  of  our  language  without  excuse.  The  pupils 
studying  English  in  America  have  a right  to  expect  the 
best.  One  condition  which  frequently  militates  against 
first  class  work  in  this  line  is  that  school  boards  all  too 
frequently  fail  to  realize  that  being  a teacher  of  English 
means  more  than  merely  hearing  lessons  so  many  times 
a week.  A very  large  part  of  the  most  important  work 
must  be  done  aside  from  class  exercises.  If  there  be 
any  teacher  justified  in  asking  a reduction  in  hours 
of  instruction  it  is  the  teacher  of  the  mother- tongue. 


COURSES  OF  STUDY  IN  STATE  SCHOOLS  1 25 


Mathematics 

Aim.  Readiness  in  the  four  mathematical  operations 
in  whole  numbers,  decimal  numbers,  and  simple  frac- 
tions, written  and  oral.  Ability  to  independently  solve 
various  examples  in  the  forms  in  which  they  generally 
appear  in  practical  life,  also  examples  in  proportion  and 
examples  in  percentage,  together  with  problems  of 
planes  and  solids.  Course  and  mode  of  its  execution 
as  given  in  a text — Instruction  in  Mathematics  ( Regne - 
undervisningen) — followed  in  all  essentials. 

First  Division 

Class  I.  (Boys  five  hours,  girls  four  hours,  weekly.) 
Through  constant  use  of  illustrative  material  (objects 
about  the  room,  wooden  pins,  cubes,  the  children’s 
fingers,  etc.)  the  children  are  taught  to  gradually  be- 
come acquainted  with  the  numbers  to  ten,  twenty, 
thirty,  and  on  up  to  one  hundred;  and  they  are  afforded 
continuous  practice  in  reading,  writing,  and  explain- 
ing the  numbers,  as  well  as  in  performing  simple  solu- 
tions in  the  four  arithmetical  operations.  At  the  close 
of  the  year  the  children  should  be  able  to  count  to  one 
hundred  forward  and  backward.  They  must  know  how 
to  manipulate  the  numbers  from  one  to  ten  in  adding 
to  or  subtracting  from  any  number  less  than  one  hun- 
dred, and  be  able,  by  the  assistance  of  the  tables,  to 
answer  questions  in  multiplication  (two’s  to  five’s) 
and  some  questions  in  division.  Chief  importance  at- 
taches to  the  ability  of  the  children  to  use  the  numbers 
from  one  to  thirty. 


126  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


Class  II.  (Four  hours  weekly.)  Acquaintance  with 
and  ability  to  read  and  write  any  number  up  to  one 
million. 

Mental  arithmetic.  Continuation  of  operations  be- 
gun in  Class  I.  When  proficient  in  adding  and  sub- 
tracting units  to  and  from  one  hundred,  tens  and  units 
are  taken  up  in  the  same  way.  Examples  in  easy 
multiplication,  with  occasional  use  of  division,  carried 
on  throughout  the  year. 

Tablet  work.  Addition  and  subtraction  of  numbers 
up  to  one  million.  In  the  operations  coin,  measure, 
and  weight  denominations  are  used,  and  are  illustrated 
by  coins,  measures,  and  weights. 

Class  III.  (Boys  four  hours,  girls  three  hours, 
weekly.)  Acquaintance  with  the  numeral  system  up 
to  and  including  millions.  Continuous  practice  in 
reading,  writing,  and  using  numbers. 

Mental  operations.  Addition  and  subtraction  of  num- 
bers up  to  one  hundred  continued.  Thereafter  extend 
the  numbers  as  far  as  the  children  can  use  them  with 
certainty  and  rapidity.  Multiplication  of  numbers  up 
to  one  hundred  by  units. 

Tablet  work.  More  work  in  addition  and  subtrac- 
tion going  farther  than  to  numbers  with  six  ciphers. 
Multiplication  of  numbers  with  many  ciphers  by  multi- 
pliers having  one  or  more  ciphers. 

Second  Division 

Class  IV.  (Boys  four  hours,  girls  three  hours, 
weekly.)  Division  with  divisors  having  one  or  more 


COURSES  OF  STUDY  IN  STATE  SCHOOLS  127 


ciphers.  Separation  of  numbers  into  their  individual 
factors.  Finding  of  the  least  common  multiple.  After 
this  a thorough  drill  in  the  four  arithmetical  operations 
with  whole  numbers — old  and  new  exercises. 

Mental  and  tablet  exercises  in  closest  relation  to  each 
other.  In  all  mental  operations,  here  or  later,  rapid 
and  positive  use  should  be  made  of  the  easier  examples 
before  the  harder  ones  are  fumbled  or  handled  with  un- 
certainty. 

Class  V.  (Two  hours  weekly.)  After  the  necessary 
preparation,  practice  in  the  three  operations  with  deci- 
mal numbers.  In  connection  with  the  consideration  of 
plane  surfaces  the  children  should  be  given  practice 
in  measuring  parallelograms,  triangles,  irregular  quad- 
rangles and  many-sided  surfaces — triangles  should  pre- 
dominate. 

Mental  and  tablet  exercises  parallel  each  other  and  are 
in  intimate  relation. 


Third  Division 

Class  VI.  (Three  hours  weekly.)  Preparatory  prac- 
tice in  common  fractions  together  with  addition  and 
subtraction  of  fractions  having  a common  denominator 
and  others  which  can  easily  be  reduced  to  a common 
denominator.  Multiplication  and  division  using  or 
including  fractions.  Further  development  with  men- 
tal operations  growing  out  of  and  in  connection  with 
tablet  work. 

Class  VII . (Three  hours  weekly.)  Percentage  in- 
cluding interest,  rebate,  and  discount.  The  calculating 


128  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


of  cubes,  prisms,  pyramids,  circles,  cylinders,  cones; 
also  shortened  pyramids,  cones,  and  cylinders. 

After  this  a general  review  so  far  as  time  admits. 

Simple  arithmetical  operations  occupy  the  entire 
field  during  the  earlier  years.  The  elementary  alge- 
braic forms  and  methods  of  solution  are  introduced  re- 
latively early,  and  minor  geometric  relations  and  opera- 
tions are  presented  during  the  last  (seventh)  year  of  the 
lower  schools.  These  latter  features  are  radically 
different  from  our  general  procedure  in  the  United 
States.  We  are  in  the  habit  of  presenting  the  various 
mathematical  subjects  one  at  a time,  completing  one 
before  another  is  considered  to  any  extent  whatever. 
For  example,  arithmetic  is  taken  up  and  gone  through, 
while  parts  of  geometry  and  algebra  which  would  be 
great  aids  in  some  of  the  arithmetical  solutions  are 
studiously  avoided  or  excluded  until  the  formal  study 
of  that  particular  subject  is  finally  begun.  The  people 
of  Norway,  on  the  contrary,  enter  the  larger  field  of 
mathematics  and,  in  a more  rational  manner— a more 
psychological  way — utilize  available  processes  and  forms 
at  every  opportunity.  The  phases  of  mathematics 
are  not  specialized  into  isolation  but  coordinated  into 
a working  unity.  Instead  of  studying  one  subject 
throughout  its  intricacies  and  side  issues  before  admit- 
ting consideration  of  other  phases  of  mathematics, 
they  make  it  the  rule  to  utilize  the  elemental  factors  of 
the  various  mathematical  subjects  in  every  way  pos- 
sible. They  give  recognition  to  the  simpler  and  more 
fundamental  principles  and  operations  regardless  of 
the  special  phase  of  the  subject  to  which  they  belong, 


COURSES  OF  STUDY  IN  STATE  SCHOOLS  129 


and  use  the  entire  product  as  groundwork  for  succeeding 
steps  in  the  science.  In  this  way  parts  of  algebra  and 
geometry  become  valuable  contributing  preliminaries 
to  higher  arithmetical  operations. 

The  texts  used  by  the  pupils  are  little  more  than 
a series  of  exercises.  All  teaching  is  done  by  the  teacher 
and  the  texts  are  arranged  in  such  a way  that  the  chil- 
dren may  have  opportunity  to  become  skilled  in  the 
principles  evolved  in  class  through  application  of  them 
in  the  long  lists  of  problems  in  their  texts.  Very  little 
blackboard  is  provided  for  the  pupils’  use,  hence  but 
little  blackboard  work  is  accomplished.  Each  room 
has  a small  board  on  which  the  teacher  or  a pupil  may 
go  through  solutions.  Never  have  I seen  more  than 
one  at  a time  working  at  the  blackboard.  While  the 
limited  use  of  blackboards  generally  calls  for  an  in- 
creased amount  of  dependence  upon  intellectual  activity 
and  consequent  increase  in  mental  alertness,  the  free 
use  of  blackboards  relieves  the  mind  of  unnecessary 
burdens  which  may  as  well  be  borne  by  crayon,  and 
thus  provides  for  the  higher  centers  a freer  activity  in 
pushing  on  the  quest  for  the  unknown. 

Geography 

Aim.  To  obtain  (1)  A somewhat  complete  ac- 
quaintance with  the  fatherland;  its  conditions,  com- 
merce, manner  of  life.  (2)  Acquaintance  with  the 
geography  of  Europe,  especially  the  countries  to  the 
north  and  the  other  longer  civilized  countries.  (3)  A 
view  of  the  different  continents  and  a closer  acquaint- 


130  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


ance  with  lands  and  places  which  are  of  greatest  im- 
portance to  the  fatherland.  (4)  Knowledge  of  the 
most  important  features  of  physical  and  mathematical 
geography. 


First  Division 

Class  II,  (Boys  three  hours,  girls  two  hours,  weekly.) 
With  continuous  reference  to  local  geography  and 
places  known  to  the  children,  the  pupils  are  brought  to 
understand  geographical  forms  and  relations  in  general. 
Special  attention  is  given  to  charts  and  maps.  In- 
struction begins  with  drawings  (on  blackboard  and  tab- 
lets) of  the  schoolroom;  then  extends  to  schoolgrounds, 
to  the  immediate  surroundings  with  streets  and  some 
of  the  more  important  buildings;  and  then  to  the  entire 
city  with  its  environs,  etc.,  etc.  The  children  should 
become  acquainted  with  the  more  important  features 
of  topography,  soil,  valleys,  plains,  ridges,  mountains, 
seas,  fjords,  rivers,  brooks,  seasons,  day  and  night, 
rising  and  setting  of  planets  (sun,  moon,  and  stars), 
flora  and  fauna,  altitude,  sea  level,  etc.  From  famili- 
arity with  the  city  and  its  surroundings  the  work  ex- 
tends to  the  entire  fatherland  which  is  considered  in 
an  elementary  fashion.  Herein  are  included  elemen- 
tary studies  of  coast  line,  principal  systems  of  valleys, 
and  location  and  size  of  cities. 

Map  drawing  of  small  localities. 

Class  III,  (Two  hours  weekly.)  The  map  of 
Europe.  Beginning  with  the  fatherland,  including  its 
location  with  reference  to  other  lands  and  seas  as  well 


COURSES  OF  STUDY  IN  STATE  SCHOOLS  131 


as  its  relations  thereto,  enter  into  a study  of  other 
European  countries  in  the  order  in  which  they  would 
naturally  be  entered  if  touring  from  the  fatherland. 
Subdivisions  of  the  sea  and  land,  also  cities,  railways, 
canals,  rivers,  and  mountains  are  to  be  studied.  Pic- 
tures are  to  be  used  in  illustration.  By  the  use  of  globes 
and  other  illustrative  material,  the  discussion  may  be 
extended  to  other  parts  of  the  world.  Each  of  the  sev- 
eral divisions  of  the  earth  is  to  be  treated  in  an  elemen- 
tary manner.  Everything  is  to  be  outlined  or  indicated 
on  the  maps  and  charts — first  by  the  teacher  and  later 
by  the  pupils. 

Second  Division 

Class  IV.  (One  hour  weekly.)  On  the  foundation 
of  what  was  done  in  Class  III  the  work  shall  be  extended 
to  the  outlying  divisions  of  Europe — Norway,  Sweden, 
Denmark,  The  British  Isles,  France,  Spain,  Portugal, 
Italy,  Russia.  The  study  of  maps  is  emphasized  both 
for  review  and  new  work.  Every  land  is  considered 
with  reference  to  the  fatherland,  other  known  lands, 
the  equator,  and  the  poles.  Attention  confined  to 
typical  aspects : description  of  a typical  city,  a manu- 
facturing center,  etc.,  special  variations  in  climate, 
flora  and  fauna,  chief  natural  scenery,  commercial 
activities,  products  and  conditions  of  the  citizens. 
Readings  on  geographical  topics  are  correlated  with 
picture  illustrations.  Details  and  illustrations  utilized 
as  in  Class  III. 

Class  V.  (One  hour  weekly.)  Holland,  Belgium, 
Germany,  Switzerland,  Austria,  Hungary,  and  the 


132  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


Balkan  peninsula  are  considered  after  the  plan  used 
in  Class  IV.  After  these  European  countries,  foreign 
countries  are  discussed.  Study  and  instruction  in  this 
class  is  in  accord  with  the  outlines  of  work  in  previous 
classes  though  more  exhaustive  and  minute.  India, 
China,  the  large  islands  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  North 
Africa  with  its  Sahara,  Central  Africa,  The  United 
States  of  America,  Australia,  etc.,  are  also  considered. 

Third  Division 

Class  VI.  (One  hour  weekly.)  The  geography  of 
the  fatherland  is  gone  through  thoroughly  with  the  aim 
of  imparting  to  the  children  a rather  complete  knowl- 
edge of  their  country’s  nature,  commerce,  and  life  in 
its  various  localities.  The  chief  points  considered  are: 
coast  line,  surface,  water  channels,  climate — east  and 
west — boundaries,  inhabitants,  life  of  the  people,  poli- 
tical divisions.  This  is  to  be  constantly  correlated 
with  what  has  been  learned  previously  of  other  European 
countries.  Map  drawing  in  detail.  Review  of  former 
work. 

Class  VII.  (One  hour  weekly.)  The  more  import- 
ant features  of  mathematical  and  physical  geography 
are  presented,  being  continuously  illustrated  by  charts, 
maps,  globes,  astronomical  plates,  etc.  The  horizon, 
earth  formations,  zones,  yearly  and  daily  rotations, 
geographical  breadth  and  length;  the  moon,  its  phases; 
the  planets,  etc.,  are  important  topics  for  study. 
Others  are  positions  of  continents  and  oceans  with 
reference  to  each  other,  climate  and  physical  features 


COURSES  OF  STUDY  IN  STATE  SCHOOLS  133 


of  the  earth,  the  air,  winds,  changes  in  temperature, 
movements  of  the  sea,  the  more  important  ocean 
streams  (Gulf  and  Polar  streams),  etc.  Throughout 
the  study  constant  connections  should  be  made  between 
what  is  known  in  geography,  natural  history,  and 
nature  study. 

The  outline  indicates  both  thoroughness  and  a close 
correlation  with  related  fields  of  work.  Beginning 
with  the  well-known  in  geography  they  gradually  widen 
their  horizon  and  establish  connections  with  the  more 
remote  parts  of  the  earth  until  the  children  obtain  a 
moderately  accurate  appreciation  and  knowledge  of 
this  branch  of  study  and  get  a view  of  its  intricate  rela- 
tions with  life  and  human  activity.  While  the  work 
of  the  course  is  generally  characterized  by  thorough- 
ness, their  study  of  localities  outside  of  Europe  is  simply 
a skimming  over  or  a skipping  glance. 

To  be  sure  time  is  insufficient  to  enable  them  to  ex- 
haust all  opportunities;  but,  it  would  seem  more  con- 
sistent with  their  general  idea  of  concentrating  on 
matters  which  directly  concern  the  fatherland  and  its 
subjects,  did  they  bring  the  young  into  a more  intimate 
acquaintance  with  America  and  a fuller  appreciation 
of  what  America  really  means  to  Norway  and  Nor- 
wegians. Very  few  Norsemen  are  without  vital  in- 
terests here.  Nearly  all,  it  seems,  have  immediate 
relatives  or  very  dear  friends  who  have  migrated  from 
the  native  land  and  have  established  homes  in  the 
United  States.  It  appears  that  it  would  be  important 
for  them  to  follow  the  path  of  their  migrating  brethren 
and  acquaint  themselves  more  fully  with  the  geography 


134  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


of  America.  Its  life,  topography,  commerce,  and  other 
distinctive  features  would  add  to  their  geography  a 
chapter  of  unsurpassed  values. 

The  work  which  is  done  is  commendable  for  many 
reasons.  The  many-sided  views  obtained  by  varied 
methods  of  attack  are  rich  and  meaningful.  Every 
pupil  is  ready  with  a full  discussion  in  response  to  a 
question  relating  to  their  own  country.  Furthermore, 
they  are  informed  with  reference  to  the  relationships 
existing  between  each  country  studied  and  the  father- 
land.  These  have  been  clearly  pointed  out.  The 
perspective  obtained  through  the  study  of  physical 
and  mathematical  geography  affords  richer  meaning 
to  every  day  of  life  as  well  as  to  all  the  phenomena  of 
nature. 

History 

Aim.  The  chief  aim  of  instruction  in  history  is  to 
inspire  the  children’s  historic  instincts  and  love  for 
their  country  and  people.  In  an  effort  to  obtain  this 
the  following  information  is  imparted:  (1)  A some- 

what connected  knowledge  of  the  history  of  the  father- 
land  together  with  the  fundamental  tendencies  of  the 
social  order.  (2)  Acquaintance  with  the  most  sig- 
nificant incidents  in  general  history. 

First  Division 

Class  HI.  (Two  hours  weekly.)  Selected  narra- 
tives from  the  history  of  the  fatherland.  The  collec- 
tion of  stories  includes  the  following:  Harald  the 


COURSES  OF  STUDY  IN  STATE  SCHOOLS  135 


Fair  Haired,  Haakon  the  Good,  Haakon  Jarl,  Olaf 
Trygveson,  Olaf  the  Holy,  Sverre  Sigurdson,  Haaken 
the  Aged,  Margaret  and  Albert,  Christian  the  Second, 
Christian  the  Fourth,  Tordenskjold,  The  Years  1807- 
1814,  The  Time  of  Pirates,  Kristian  August,  Norway 
in  1814,  Kristian  Fredrik,  Eidsvold,  17th  of  May,  Nor- 
way’s decennial  celebration. 

The  stories  are  presented  orally  and  are  so  detailed 
that  the  children  get  clear  pictures  of  persons  and  in- 
cidents. The  material  of  instruction  is  centered  about 
particular  and  important  persons  and  incidents  in 
order  to  give  them  greater  fixity.  The  pupils  rehearse 
the  stories  they  have  been  taught.  Historic  poems 
and  songs  of  the  fatherland  which  refer  especially  to 
people  or  incidents  are  studied  in  connection  with  the 
history.  The  material  received  through  instruction 
in  geography  during  the  former  year  is  utilized  as 
groundwork  in  building  up  and  enriching  the  historical 
ideas  of  the  fatherland.  The  more  important  phases 
of  social  institutions  are  presented  in  a way  suited  to 
the  capacity  of  the  pupils.  As  the  stories  proceed,  an 
attempt  is  made  to  awaken  a degree  of  appreciation  of 
their  historical  sequence. 

Second  Division 

Class  IV.  (Two  hours  weekly.)  Stories  and  de- 
scriptions regarding  general  history  centering  about 
the  following  points  or  topics:  Ancient  world  king- 

doms, Greeks,  Romans,  Germans,  Norse,  Papacy, 
great  discoveries  and  inventions.  Treatment  here  is 


136  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


similar  to  that  given  in  Class  III.  Stories,  anecdotes 
and  pictures  add  life  to  regular  routine.  Stories  of 
the  fatherland  are  presented  in  very  brief  form  and  are 
given  in  order  to  effect  connection  with  general  events 
in  world  history.  Here  again  geography  is  made  the 
groundwork  of  history. 

Class  V . (One  hour  weekly.)  Work  carried  on  as 
previously.  Narratives  of  events  chiefly  during  the 
time  from  the  Reformation  to  the  French  Revolution. 

Central  features  studied:  Luther  and  the  time  of 

the  Reformation  (Luther’s  childhood  and  youth,  Karl 
V.,  extension  of  the  Reformation,  and  the  Thirty 
Years’  War),  the  period  of  absolute  monarchy,  the  time 
preceding  the  Revolution,  science  and  discovery.  Pre- 
sentation of  topics  the  same  as  previously  given.  Here 
is  included  also  a considerable  amount  of  culture  his- 
tory, descriptions  from  which  are  given  in  such  a way 
that  life  among  the  higher  classes,  as  well  as  among  the 
oppressed,  may  be  presented  and  appreciated. 

Third  Division 

Class  VI.  (One  hour  weekly.)  Work  continued  as 
heretofore.  Stories  from  the  time  of  the  Revolution 
down  to  modern  times.  Among  the  materials  used 
are  the  following  topics:  time  of  the  Revolution,  1789- 
1800;  Napoleon,  1800-1815;  July  and  February  Revo- 
lutions, Napoleon  III.,  Germany’s  consolidation,  dis- 
coveries and  inventions,  delineations  of  the  history  of 
civilization,  and  the  advance  of  modem  times  in  in- 
dustries and  means  for  communication. 


COURSES  OF  STUDY  IN  STATE  SCHOOLS  137 


Class  VII.  (Two  hours  weekly.)  The  history  of 
the  fatherland  gone  through  in  great  detail  and  in  a 
definitely  connected  manner.  All  work  based  upon 
what  has  been  learned  in  former  classes.  The  follow- 
ing are  among  the  more  important  points  considered: 
Norway  in  ancient  times,  Norway  organized  into  a 
Christian  kingdom,  Norway’s  time  of  prosperity,  Nor- 
way under  internal  wars,  Norway  under  later  kings  of 
Swedish  family  and  descent,  Norway  in  union  with 
Sweden  and  Denmark,  Norway  united  to  Denmark 
until  1661,  time  of  absolute  monarchy  (1661-1814),  Nor- 
way in  1814,  Norway  since  1814.  In  addition,  the  chief 
features  of  social  institutions,  the  condition  of  the 
state,  rights  and  obligations  of  citizens,  state  adminis- 
tration, communal  affairs,  and  similar  topics  are  dis- 
cussed at  some  length. 

By  the  assistance  of  a suitable  text  the  presentation 
should  impart  to  the  pupils  a moderately  connected 
knowledge  of  the  historical  development  of  the  father- 
land  up  to  the  present  time.  The  children  should  ob- 
tain clear  insight  into  the  inner  historic  situations; 
persons,  events,  and  specific  dates  standing  as  con- 
tributors in  the  background.  Historic  sagas  and  re- 
lated selections  are  used  in  connection.  While  atten- 
tion centers  in  the  history  of  the  fatherland,  important 
contemporary  events  in  general  history  are  kept  con- 
stantly before  the  eyes,  frequent  reference  being  made 
to  the  studies  in  Classes  IV- VI. 

The  stated  aims,  enumerated  means,  and  outlined 
methods  of  presentation  afford  a fairly  good  idea  of  the 
work  done  in  the  study  of  history  throughout  the 


138  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


primary  schools.  It  has  been  observed,  perhaps  by 
many,  that  instruction  in  history  has  been  preceded  by 
one  year’s  study  of  geography,  that  the  geography  of 
the  several  countries  precedes  the  history  of  the  peo- 
ples inhabiting  them,  and  that  geographical  apprecia- 
tion is  utilized  as  a foundation  for  instruction  in  his- 
tory. 

The  main  purposes  of  instruction  in  history  are:  de- 
velopment of  patriotic  and  loyal  citizens,  intellectual 
training,  and  cultural  information.  The  prized  traits 
of  citizenship  are  read,  sung,  and  drilled  into  the  daily 
life  of  every  child  in  the  entire  country,  and  these  im- 
pressions are  fixed  so  definitely  that  they  live  through 
generations,  even  when  the  subjects  are  transplanted 
to  foreign  soils. 

Story  telling  in  the  beginnings  of  history  instruction 
affords  an  immediate  appeal  both  to  the  children’s  in- 
terest in  personal  activities  and  to  their  liking  for  that 
form  of  instruction.  The  characters  whose  biogra- 
phies are  delineated  are  the  men  around  whom  national 
activities  have  centered.  The  bits  of  history  related 
are  of  epoch-making  incidents  from  the  earliest  times 
down  to  the  present.  Being  presented  through  bio- 
graphy they  have  a personal  touch  and  flavor  which 
secure  vital  and  immediate  responses  from  the  chil- 
dren. 

There  are  still  other  features  worthy  of  consideration. 
Incidents  of  historic  interest  are  not  only  pointed  out 
and  studied  but  the  scenes  of  these  are  actually  visited. 
Here  again  we  see  the  definite  way  in  which  history  and 
geography  are  correlated.  Too,  since  Norway  has  been 


COURSES  OF  STUDY  IN  STATE  SCHOOLS  139 


favored  by  the  gift  of  many  literary  geniuses,  most 
historic  characters  and  events  have  found  place  in 
literary  classics.  All  along  the  way,  songs,  poems,  and 
dramas  having  relation  to  national  history  are  brought 
into  the  instruction  in  a living,  real  way.  The  children 
are  given  abundant  opportunity  to  attain  proficiency 
in  relating  historic  events  with  information  gained  from 
the  fields  of  geography,  language,  and  literature. 

Nature  Study 

Aim.  Instruction  in  nature  study  attempts  to 
awaken  the  children’s  interest  in  and  regard  for  nature 
in  all  its  expressions,  and  to  exercise  their  thought 
powers  and  judgment  so  as  to  enable  them  to  find  or 
make  connections  between  cause  and  effect.  In  order 
that  their  attention  be  centered  upon  the  suitability  to 
purpose,  conformity  to  law,  harmony  and  beauty,  the 
children  should  have  their  thought  directed  to  nature ’s 
creation  and  maintenance.  Finally,  the  children 
through  this  instruction  should  obtain  a conception 
of  how  mankind  attempts  to  control  nature  and  to 
utilize  its  strength  in  the  promotion  of  human  welfare. 

Materials  for  instruction.  Our  bodily  structure  in 
the  large  or  whole,  as  necessary  to  an  understanding  of 
the  general  conditions  in  man ’s  physical  life  and  as  fun- 
damental to  instruction  in  health.  The  more  important 
native  and  foreign  animals  and  plants;  their  growth  and 
life,  together  with  their  importance  in  nature’s  economy. 
The  natural  forces  which  have  greatest  significance  for 
organic  life  and  for  man’s  efficiency. 


140  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


Methods  of  instruction.  Natural  objects  or  repre- 
sentations of  them  in  model  or  drawing,  and  operations 
of  natural  forces  illustrated  by  experiments  observed 
and  written  up.  The  accuracy  of  observations  are 
tested  by  the  pupil’s  oral  or  written  accounts  of  what 
they  see.  Conditions  and  things  familiar  to  the  chil- 
dren in  common  life  are  the  ones  to  be  used  above  all 
others. 

Class  IV.  (One  hour  weekly.)  Short  synopsis 
over  our  bodily  structure  (four  hours).  Present  by 
oral  instruction  and  through  illustrative  materials  the 
skeleton,  muscles,  digestive  organs,  skin,  circulation, 
respiratory  organs.  The  same  points  may  also  be 
studied  as  they  appear  in  the  lower  animals. 

Mammals.  (Twenty  hours.)  Horse,  ass,  cow,  sheep, 
goat,  reindeer,  deer,  elk,  camel,  cat,  wild-cat,  lion, 
tiger,  dog,  wolf,  fox,  marten,  bear,  swine,  elephant, 
seal,  whale,  hare,  rabbit,  squirrel,  rat,  beaver,  anteater, 
bat,  monkey. 

Fowls.  (Ten  hours.)  Tame  chickens,  woodcock, 
sparrow,  yellow  hammer,  bullfinch,  lark,  swallow,  star- 
ling, dove,  cuckoo,  parrot,  hawk,  falcon,  eagle,  owl, 
heron,  stork,  duck,  goose,  swan,  gull,  ostrich,  and  others. 

Instruction  begins  with  typical  animal  forms  which 
are  illustrated  by  charts  or  drawings  when  the  stuffed 
or  mounted  specimens  are  not  at  hand.  The  children 
are  required  to  depend  upon  themselves  as  much  as 
possible  in  finding  out  individual  characteristics  in  the 
bodily  structures  of  the  chosen  forms.  Then  bodily 
structure  and  habits  are  related,  as  are  also  their  homes, 
food,  color,  and  environment.  Finally,  the  animal’s 


COURSES  OF  STUDY  IN  STATE  SCHOOLS  141 


meaning  in  the  economy  of  nature  and  its  value  to 
man  are  the  points  studied.  Along  with  the  careful 
study  of  a typical  form,  related  animals  are  examined 
in  a more  general  and  cursory  manner.  The  children 
are  taught  to  remember  that  while  they  have  dominion 
over  the  animals  they  are  at  the  same  time  under  obliga- 
tions to  them.  Disregard  of  these  duties  is  looked  upon 
as  rudeness.  Animal  stories  form  a part  of  the  in- 
struction. After  studying  the  chosen  types  a review 
takes  notice  of  common  characters  and  separates  ani- 
mals into  classes.  Instruction  is  based  on  a text. 

Class  V.  (Two  hours  weekly.)  Plants . (Forty 
hours.)  Dicotyledonous  plants.  Bluebells,  buttercups, 
strawberry,  apple  trees,  pea,  clover,  beans,  cherry, 
plum,  dandelion,  blueberry,  heather,  potato,  tobacco, 
willow,  birch,  hazel,  and  others,  studied  under  their  reg- 
ular headings  or  in  their  special  families. 

Monocotyledonous  plants.  Rye,  barley,  wheat,  oats, 
timothy,  lily  of  the  valley,  pine,  fir,  juniper,  in  connec- 
tion with  respective  families. 

Flowerless  plants.  Ferns,  moss,  mushrooms. 

Foreign  useful  plants.  Coffee,  tea,  cotton,  sugar 
cane,  rice,  maize,  orange,  palms,  spices.  All  plants  are 
studied  carefully  under  their  respective  subdivisions. 
As  in  the  consideration  of  animals,  the  growth,  vital 
organs,  habitat,  and  use  of  plants  are  studied,  as  are 
also  their  grouping,  fruit,  etc.  About  fifty  plants  are 
studied  carefully  and  others  are  related  to  them.  The 
children  are  taught  not  to  injure  plants  or  trees. 

Animals.  (Twenty  hours.)  Adder,  lizard,  croco- 
dile, turtle,  frog,  toad,  mackerel,  pike,  salmon,  trout, 


142  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


herring,  haddock,  flounder,  eel,  shark,  cabbage  butter- 
fly, silk  worm,  moth,  bee,  bumble-bee,  wasp,  ant,  fly, 
gnat,  grasshopper,  spider,  lobster,  crab,  angleworm, 
leech,  trichina,  snail,  mussel,  star-fish,  sea  urchin, 
coral,  sponge,  etc.  Instruction  along  same  line  as 
in  Class  IV. 

Physics . (Sixteen  hours.)  Based  on  a text.  In- 
struction to  be  accompanied  by  experiments  whenever 
possible — otherwise  illustrated  by  drawings  and  models. 

Solids.  Resistance  to  change  in  form:  hardness, 
elasticity.  Resistance  to  change  of  extensity:  com- 

pressibility, porosity,  adhesion,  cohesion. 

Liquids.  No  fixed  form,  apparent  unchangeability 
of  extensity,  adhesion  to  solids,  solution  of  solids,  mix- 
ing of  liquids,  endosmose. 

Gases.  No  definite  form,  attraction,  diffusion,  ab- 
sorption. 

Gravitation.  Weight,  units  of  weight,  weighing,  re- 
lation between  weight  and  size,  force  of  weight  as  a 
cause  of  movement,  hindrances  to  movement,  forces  in 
equilibrium. 

The  lever.  Balance,  hand  presses,  on  the  principle 
of  the  lever. 

Class  VI.  (Two  hours  weekly.)  Liquids.  (Eight 
hours.)  Distribution  of  pressure,  Archimedes’  law, 
specific  gravity,  communicating  shaft. 

Properties  of  air.  (Eight  hours.)  Archimedes’  law, 
the  atmosphere  and  its  pressure,  barometer,  pumps  and 
lifters,  Mariotte’s  law. 

Heat.  (Twelve  hours.)  Different  temperatures,  ef- 
fects of  heat,  expansion  of  bodies,  the  thermometer, 


COURSES  OF  STUDY  IN  STATE  SCHOOLS  143 


maximum  density  of  water,  melting  and  freezing,  evap- 
oration and  condensation,  boiling,  degree  of  pressure 
at  the  boiling  point. 

Transmisson  of  heat  by  radiation  and  by  conduction, 
good  and  poor  conductors,  temperature  and  humidity 
of  the  air,  downward  pressure,  circulation  of  water, 
atmospheric  currents,  sources  of  heat,  heat  as  force, 
steam  pressure. 

Sound . (Eight  hours.)  Origin  of  sound,  its  trans- 
mission, rate  of  transmission,  the  ear,  tones,  reflection 
of  sound. 

Light . (Ten  hours.)  Self-illuminating  and  dark 
bodies,  transparent  and  opaque,  straight  path  of  light, 
shade,  rate  of  transmission,  reflection,  refraction,  dif- 
fusion of  color,  convex  and  concave  lenses,  microscope, 
telescope,  camera,  the  eye,  spectacles. 

Magnetism.  (Five  hours.)  The  magnet  and  its 
poles,  their  reciprocal  relations,  magnetizing,  difference 
magnetically  in  iron  and  steel,  horseshoe  magnet,  com- 
pass. 

Electricity . (Fifteen  hours.)  Electricity  of  friction, 
two  kinds  of  electrical  condition,  conductors  and  in- 
sulators, communcicating  and  distributing,  electrical 
machines,  lightning  and  thunder,  lightning  rods, 
electrical  current,  battery,  electric  light,  electro- 
magnetism, telegraph,  telephone,  electricity  which 
generates  power. 

Equilibrium  and  Motion . (Ten  hours.)  Motion 
with  uniform,  increasing,  or  decreasing  rapidity;  com- 
bination of  motion  and  force  (the  parallelogram  of 
power,  center  of  gravity,  the  three  conditions  of  balance, 


144  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


the  beam,  the  inclined  plane);  work  and  vital  force; 
experiment  with  the  pendulum. 

Class  VII.  (Two  hours  weekly.)  Physics . (Six- 
teen hours.)  Machines,  block,  tackle,  windlass,  the 
curved  pivot,  various  driving  forces  (water  wheel, 
steam  engines,  dynamos),  application  of  machinery 
in  the  industries,  railways  and  steamboats. 

Chemistry . (Sixteen  hours.)  Ingredients  of  water 
and  air,  coal,  carbonic  acid,  burning  and  oxidation. 
Fundamental  elements  as  material  in  all  bodies.  Exam- 
ples of  elements:  oxygen,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  carbon, 
chlorine,  sulphur,  phosphorus,  aluminum,  iron,  silver, 
and  gold.  Examples  for  combinations:  water,  am- 

monia, sulphuric  acid,  rust,  soda,  cooking  salt,  lime, 
chalk,  clay,  quartz,  ores.  Examples  of  organic  matter: 
starch,  sugar,  albumen,  alchohol,  fats.  Instruction 
in  chemistry  consists  in  illustrations  and  descriptions 
of  materials  and  experiments. 

Structure  and  life  of  the  human  body.  Study  of 
health . (Thirty  hours.)  Based  on  text.  Study  of 
skeleton,  muscles,  nervous  system,  work  and  rest, 
sense  organs  and  their  use,  digestive  organs  and  pro- 
cesses, use  of  teeth,  blood  and  circulation,  breathing 
pure  and  impure  air,  kidneys,  meaning  of  bodily  ex- 
ercise, structure  and  use  of  the  skin,  bathing,  clothing, 
dwellings,  foods  and  pleasures  (under  this  intoxicating 
drinks,  tobacco,  etc.)  Something  regarding  conta- 
gious diseases  and  help  in  times  of  accidents.  Inject 
instruction  on  health  when  convenient  in  connection 
with  the  study  of  the  organs  of  the  body.  Illustrate 
by  experiment  when  possible.  General  review,  especb 


COURSES  OF  STUDY  IN  STATE  SCHOOLS  145 


ally  the  points  concerning  the  nourishment  and  res- 
piration of  plants  and  animals. 

The  outline  in  nature  study  impresses  one  with  the 
inclusiveness  of  the  course.  The  elementary  phases  of 
animal  life,  plant  life,  physics,  chemistry,  and  human 
physiology  and  health  are  made  the  objects  of  careful 
consideration.  True  this  study  in  some  cases  is  stiff, 
formal,  meaningless,  and  without  spirit  because  of  not 
being  connected  with  the  vital  interests  of  the  pupils, 
but  on  the  whole  the  work  is  brought  very  close  home 
to  their  daily  life.  Through  it  the  children  are  able  to 
see  the  contributions  to  life  and  human  welfare  made 
by  the  innumerable  things  in  man’s  environment. 

Throughout  the  primary  grades  the  work  is  mostly 
devoted  to  descriptive  studies.  Considerable  atten- 
tion is  given  also  to  the  intrinsic  value  to  man  of  ani- 
mals, plants,  and  natural  forces,  and  the  means  he  has 
found  for  utilizing  them  in  his  struggle  forward.  The 
nature  lessons  throughout  the  grades  are  enriched  and 
enlivened  by  the  use  of  well  selected  and  carefully  pre- 
pared appliances  and  models  for  demonstration. 
Whenever  possible  the  living  animals  and  plants  in 
their  natural  habitat,  forces  as  applied  in  the  ma- 
chinery of  neighboring  institutions,  and  minerals  in 
their  successive  processes  of  development  and  refine- 
ment are  studied  at  first  hand.  Every  school  where  the 
financial  stringency  is  not  too  keen  is  provided  with  a 
liberal  amount  of  apparatus  for  demonstrational  pur- 
poses (anskuelsesmidler) . As  an  instance,  every  prim- 
ary school  in  the  city  of  Christiania  has  at  least  one  room 
of  considerable  size  devoted  exclusively  to  the  storing 


146  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


of  this  material.  Maps,  charts,  mounted  specimens, 
plates,  preserved  articles,  and  accessory  materials  are 
there  in  abundance,  and  provide  minute  representa- 
tions for  most  any  point  one  might  wish  to  make  typical 
for  illustration  or  study.  The  more  genuine  phases 
of  laboratory  work  are  not  provided,  though  a consider- 
able amount  of  crude  experimentation  is  done  in  the 
grades. 

The  teacher  presenting  this  course  must  be  capable 
for  he  is  the  authority  and  guide  back  of  all  work  done. 
Text  books  (good  ones  though  condensed)  play  a part, 
but  a much  smaller  part  than  would  be  the  case  in  our 
American  schools  were  similar  instruction  approached 
in  a formal  way.  In  other  words,  their  teachers  fur- 
nish the  course  and  teach  the  subject,  while  too  many  of 
ours  merely  present  the  course  provided  in  the  adopted 
text  book. 

Writing,  drawing,  vocal  music,  manual  training,  and 
gymnastics  are  also  in  the  curriculum  and  each  receives 
careful  attention.  Perhaps  extended  outlining  of  these 
courses  and  long  discussions  concerning  them  are  un- 
necessary. Their  importance  and  value  are  recognized. 
Their  presentation  in  the  schools  of  Norway  is  com- 
mendable, but  some  things  must  be  passed  without  ex- 
haustive treatment.  Only  general  statements  will  be 
given. 

The  results  in  some  lines — writing  and  drawing  in 
particular — do  not  justify  the  amount  of  time  devoted 
to  them.  The  writing  is  mechanical  throughout,  and 
in  the  lower  grades  the  requirements  are  altogether 
too  exacting.  Drawing  is  required  of  all  alike.  Those 


COURSES  OF  STUDY  IN  STATE  SCHOOLS  147 


who  have  ability  in  this  line  of  work  perhaps  receive 
too  little  instruction;  others,  without  talent  or  liking 
for  it,  regard  it  as  a drudgery  and,  in  the  minds  of  some 
of  their  teachers,  hinder  the  progress  of  the  gifted.  The 
finer  coordinations  required  in  both  writing  and  draw- 
ing are  frequently  in  advance  of  the  development  of  the 
pupils  and  work  injury  rather  than  benefit. 

Vocal  music  is  required  of  all  and  injures  none. 
Probably  each  one  reaps  considerable  benefit  from  the 
instruction.  The  class  of  music  used  in  their  teaching 
is  very  different  from  what  is  in  vogue  in  our  American 
schools.  The  church  has  exercised  a great  deal  of  in- 
fluence in  this  respect.  Since  church  and  state  are 
united  the  music  of  the  church  forms  a predominating 
portion  of  the  music  of  the  state  schools.  Psalms, 
chants,  and  songs  of  stately  dignity  constitute  the  bulk 
of  their  selections,  while  those  of  lighter  strain  are  in- 
terspersed at  intervals  not  too  close  together.  In 
America  our  children’s  songs  are  more  attractive  from 
the  “ jingle”  point  of  view.  Our  children  like  them 
better  and  are  more  anxious  to  sing  them.  The  little 
N orwegians,  too,  are  delighted  when  permitted  to  swing 
into  the  lighter  strains  of  music.  They  love  to  sing. 
Their  faces  fairly  glow  as  their  mellow  voices  swell  out 
whether  they  sing  in  a jingle  or  in  the  rich  harmonies 
of  their  psalms.  Common  use  of  the  better  quality 
of  music  cultivates  their  ability  to  appreciate  and  to 
render  works  of  higher  order  than  one  usually  finds  in 
the  schools  of  our  own  country. 

Manual  and  industrial  training  has  had  an  important 
place  in  their  schools  for  many  years.  Every  hour 


148  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


spent  at  the  bench  is  a delight  to  the  boys,  while  the 
girls  enjoy  equally  well  the  privilege  of  sewing  or  cook- 
ing. These  activities  are  certainly  valuable  in  the 
training  of  the  young,  and  their  influences  extend  into 
the  homes  of  all  the  pupils. 

Gymnastics  is  the  regular  order  for  all  pupils.  A 
Swedish  system  of  exercises  is  used  which  requires  little 
apparatus  but  yields  large  returns.  Abundant  well- 
directed  exercises  of  various  kinds  are  provided  for 
every  pupil  at  stated  periods  and  are  entered  into  with 
zest.  The  regularity  with  which  the  gymnastic  exer- 
cises are  given  doubtless  has  much  to  do  in  preserving 
the  health  of  the  children.  As  a class  they  are  not 
only  free  from  weaknesses  but  are  vigorous  and  robust. 
Another  part  of  their  gymnastic  work  is  the  outdoor 
exercise  which  is  required  of  all  the  pupils  between  the 
class  periods.  This  doubtless  adds  much  life  and  ani- 
mation to  the  entire  school  program. 

The  course  as  a whole  includes  the  fundamentals  and 
chief  essentials  to  educational  activity.  Those  who 
pass  through  the  primary  schools  obtain  an  intelligent 
appreciation  of  life  and  its  meanings.  They  are  able 
to  meet  common  needs  successfully  and  to  attend  to  gen- 
eral affairs  in  an  approved  manner.  The  masses  feel 
the  necessity  of  the  fuller  life  thus  provided  and  in 
turn  the  school  is  admirably  fitted  to  the  task  of  de- 
veloping loyal  and  capable  citizens.  Furthermore, 
those  who  are  so  favorably  situated  that  they  may  con- 
tinue in  school  longer  than  seven  years  and  desire  fit- 
ness for  entrance  upon  the  work  of  higher  education 


COURSES  OF  STUDY  IN  STATE  SCHOOLS  149 


find  in  the  primary  schools  every  opportunity  to  gratify 
their  desires. 

The  connection  between  the  lower  and  higher  schools 
was  not  at  all  satisfactory  until  1896,  when  the  Storthing 
readjusted  the  system.  Since  then  pupils  may  pass 
regularly  from  the  fifth  grade  of  the  primary  school  into 
the  four  year  middle  school,  or  after  the  completion 
of  the  seven  grades  of  the  primary  school  they  may  enter 
either  a three  or  a four  year  middle  school  and  finish 
in  three  years.  Since  the  number  desiring  entrance  to 
the  middle  school  from  the  fifth  grade  is  larger  than  can 
be  accommodated,  those  of  highest  ranking  education- 
ally are  admitted.  While  the  secondary  school  men 
claim  perfect  right  to  choose  the  fittest  for  entrance  into 
their  schools,  the  primary  school  men  feel  that  their 
work  in  the  sixth  and  seventh  grades  suffers  injustice 
as  a result  of  this  selective  process.  The  connection 
between  the  schools  is  not  yet  perfect  and  some  unrest 
is  evidenced  in  reference  to  the  matter.  The  chief 
need  seems  to  be  an  increase  in  the  number  of  middle 
schools. 


III.  THE  MIDDLE  SCHOOL 

The  Storthing,  in  1896,  passed  a law  defining  the 
limits  and  work  of  the  middle  school.  According  to 
the  enactment  this  school  builds  upon  the  foundation 
laid  in  the  primary  school  and  secures  to  the  pupils 
a thorough  general  education  suited  to  the  needs  and 
receptivity  of  childhood.  The  course  of  study  offered 
may  be  of  varied  length,  but  in  no  case  shall  it  exceed 


150  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


four  years  in  duration.  The  four  year  course  aims  at  a 
very  natural  connection  with  the  work  done  during  the 
first  five  years  in  the  common  school.  Where  the  con- 
nection can  be  made  with  the  wrork  of  later  grades  in 
the  primary  school,  the  course  of  the  middle  school  may 
be  correspondingly  shorter.  The  aim  and  methods  are 
in  general  similar  to  those  in  the  lower  school;  though, 
of  course,  higher,  more  thorough  and  inclusive,  and 
such  as  give  deeper  insight  into  all  subjects  of  instruc- 
tion. It  is  required  that  instruction  be  given  in  reli- 
gion, Norwegian,  German,  English,  history,  geography, 
natural  science,  mathematics,  writing,  drawing,  man- 
ual training,  and  vocal  music.  Instruction  in  domestic 
economy  may  be  provided  for  the  girls. 

Formerly  all  of  these  schools  charged  tuition;  but,  as 
the  conditions  in  the  commune  gradually  improved, 
provisions  'were  made  in  some  of  them  for  the  issuance 
of  a certain  number  of  free  scholarships.  These  were 
usually  governed  in  such  a way  that  those  most  in 
need  were  the  first  to  receive  the  benefits.  From  time 
to  time  scholarship  funds  were  increased  until  now  some 
communes  provide  free  scholarships  to  all  resident  chil- 
dren. The  city  of  Christiania  has  a three-year  middle 
school  building  upon  the  foundation  of  seven  years  of 
primary  work  and  charging  no  tuition  whatsoever. 
This  provision  together  with  the  building  up  of  scholar- 
ship funds  are  forerunners  of  free  entrance,  probably, 
to  all  of  the  state’s  middle  schools.  As  already  stated, 
the  work  of  the  middle  school  overlaps  in  part  that  of  the 
primary  school.  The  course  of  study  for  Classes  I and 
II  is  in  a large  measure  a duplication  of  that  provided 


COURSES  OF  STUDY  IN  STATE  SCHOOLS  151 


for  Classes  VI  and  VII  in  the  lower  school.  However, 
to  present  the  work  of  the  middle  school  adequately, 
it  is  essential  that  the  course  for  the  entire  four  years  be 
here  included.  The  state  adopts  a curriculum  which  is 
used  in  all  of  its  secondary  schools.  Minor  details 
such  as  texts  vary  in  the  different  schools.  The  fol- 
lowing is  an  outline  of  the  curriculum  used  in  the 
Christiania  Cathedral  School. 

Religion 

Class  I.  (Two  hours.)  Vogt’s  Bible  History  to  the 
fall  of  the  Kingdom  of  Judah.  J.  Sverdrup’s  Com- 
mentary to  Article  2.  Verses  of  hymns  once  each 
week. 

Class  II.  (Two  hours.)  Vogt’s  Bible  History  from 
‘'The  Exile”  to  “The  Story  of  the  Passion.”  Com- 
mentary from  Article  2 to  “The  Sacraments.”  Verses 
from  hymns. 

Class  III.  (Two  hours.)  Bible  History  and  Com- 
mentary completed  and  reviewed.  Verses  from  hymns. 
Bible  reading. 

Class  IV.  (One  hour.)  Y.  Brun  and  Th.  Caspari’s 
Church  History  gone  through  and  reviewed.  Cursory 
study  of  the  ecclesiastical  year  and  the  order  of  divine 
service. 

Here  we  note  the  beginnings  of  a more  formal  con- 
sideration of  religion.  A large  part  of  the  work  is 
historical.  Texts  and  lectures  covering  practically 
identical  grounds  form  the  basis  of  the  work  in  this 
branch  of  study.  The  change  to  the  more  formal 


152  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


study  of  religion  strikes  the  writer  as  a distinctive  turn 
or  transfer  from  moderately  successful  to  useless  en- 
deavor. The  personal  touch  and  human  flavor  at- 
tending the  informal  telling  of  Bible  stories  afford  some 
genuine  inspiration.  Life  touches  life.  When  char- 
acter is  exemplified  in  a living  person  or  is  shown 
through  story  once  to  have  had  expression  in  a fellow 
mortal,  interest  is  awakened  and  the  child  instinctively 
imitates  the  vision  before  him.  He  transforms  it  into 
life.  He  enters  into  the  spirit  of  the  theme  and  the 
spirit  giveth  life. 

On  the  other  hand,  when  religion  is  presented  in  a 
formal  way,  when  an  abstract  view  is  taken,  when  the 
core  of  the  subject  is  in  the  cold  pages  of  texts, — then 
the  letter  killeth.  Through  force  of  habit  the  children 
retain  some  respect  for  the  wishes  of  the  teacher  and 
do  go  through  the  motions  of  study  and  recitation,  but 
the  life  of  the  subject  is  very  soon  extinguished  and 
even  respect  for  it  vanishes  in  large  measure.  How- 
ever, in  rare  instances  good  results  are  obtained  through 
the  efforts  of  teachers  who  are  especially  well  qualified 
for  this  work. 

The  Mother-Tongue  and  Old  Norse 

Class  I.  (Five  hours.)  Pauss  and  Lassen’s  Reader 
II.  2.  Some  of  the  Songs  of  the  Fatherland  learned 
by  heart.  Oral  and  written  analysis.  Hofgaard’s 
Norwegian  School  Grammar,  Paragraphs  1-31,  34-38, 
41,  45,  48-59,  61,  65,  76-79.  The  more  important  part 
of  Hougen’s  Rules  for  Correct  Writing.  . Written  work 
(dictation  and  composition)  each  week. 


COURSES  OF  STUDY  IN  STATE  SCHOOLS  153 


Class  II.  (Four  hours.)  Pauss  and  Lassen  ’s  Reader 
II.  3.  Poems — among  them  some  of  the  Songs  of  the 
Fatherland  learned  by  heart.  Hofgaard’s  Grammar 
continued,  also  analyses.  One  written  exercise  each 
week  (dictation  and  easy  composition.) 

Class  III.  (Alternately  three  and  four  hours.) 
Pauss  and  Lassen’s  Reader  III.  Poems  learned  by 
heart- — partly  from  Lassen ’s  Poems  for  Middle  Schools, 
partly  from  Songs  of  the  Fatherland.  Certain  parts 
of  the  grammar  reviewed.  Analyses  now  and  then. 
About  twenty  written  exercises,  among  them  some 
dictations. 

Class  IV.  (alternating  three  and  four  hours.) 
Pauss  and  Lassen’s  Reader  III.  That  portion  from 
which  the  examination  is  taken,  gone  through  and 
partly  reviewed.  Several  poems  committed  to  mem- 
ory. Fourteen  written  exercises.  Among  the  topics 
used  the  following  are  typical:  The  summer  vacation, 

the  location  of  our  city,  Denmark,  past  and  present 
lighting  systems,  animal  life  in  our  forests,  reminis- 
cences from  my  earlier  school  days,  birds  and  why  we 
protect  them,  the  Norsemen  as  seamen,  Christiania 
in  winter  garb,  Europe’s  natural  conditions  in  prefer- 
ence to  those  of  other  continents. 

In  harmony  with  the  indications  of  the  plan  of  in- 
struction, the  early  part  of  the  work  in  the  study  of 
the  mother- tongue  is  devoted  to  reading  from  selected 
texts.  Simultaneously,  grammar  and  rhetoric  are 
carried  along  and  put  into  use  in  written  compositions 
which  are  frequent.  Here,  as  in  the  primary  schools, 
exact  spelling,  correct  grammatical  and  rhetorical 


154  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


forms,  and  approved  literary  style  are  constant  require- 
ments. The  child  is  expected  not  only  to  read  intel- 
ligently, but  to  express  himself  orally  and  in  writing 
in  a comprehensive  manner  and  in  such  form  as  to  ap- 
peal to  the  intelligence  of  others.  Thus  both  in  oral 
speech  and  through  written  composition  the  pupil 
is  privileged  to  put  his  attainments  into  continuous 
use.  They  acquire  the  tools  of  thought  and  skill  in 
handling  them. 


German 

Class  I.  (Six  hours.)  Knudsen  and  Kristiansen’s 
Reader  from  the  beginning  to  the  “Subjunctive.” 
Written  exercises. 

Class  II.  (Five  hours.)  Knudsen  and  Kristiansen ’s 
Reader  from  “Subjunctive”  to  close  of  book.  Voss’ 
Reader  in  section  A,  seventy-six  pages,  in  section  B, 
fifty  pages;  one-half  of  these  shall  be  learned  by  heart. 
Hofgaard’s  Short  German  Grammar  the  most  import- 
ant forms.  Written  exercises.  Rehearsals.  Retro- 
versions. 

Class  III . (Five  hours.)  Voss  ’ Reader,  in  section  A, 
seventy-five  pages,  in  section  B,  fifty-eight.  Hof- 
gaard’s Short  German  Grammar,  inflections.  In  sec- 
tion B besides  the  above,  paragraphs  140-148,  156,169, 
179-181.  In  addition  section  B shall  have  thirty-six 
pages  of  O.  Kristiansen’s  oral  exercises  and  thirty-two 
compositions  according  to  O.  Kristiansen’s  exercises 
in  written  work.  In  section  A,  written  exercises, 
partly  according  to  Kristiansen’s  outlines  for  written 


COURSES  OF  STUDY  IN  STATE  SCHOOLS  155 


work  and  partly  reviews  of  the  lessons  in  the  reading 
book. 

Class  IV.  (Five  hours.)  Voss’  Reader  in  section 
A,  twenty  pages,  in  section  B,  seventy-five.  Repeti- 
tion of  the  portion  designated  for  minutest  study.  The 
grammar  reviewed.  One  or  two  written  exercises  each 
week  according  to  Kristiansen’s  outlines. 

The  instruction  in  German  proceeds  in  a very  natural 
manner.  The  earlier  lessons  are  devoted  very  largely  to 
oral  instruction  in  which  the  teacher  takes  the  lead. 
Words,  phrases,  and  sentences  are  given  by  the  teacher 
for  translation  and  concert  repetition.  Repitition  and 
concert  work  are  prominent  in  many  places  in  the  schools, 
but  nowhere  stressed  to  the  same  extent  as  in  their 
language  instruction.  Concert  work  seems  to  stimu- 
late to  freedom  in  pronunciation,  while  repetition  af- 
fords the  drill  which  is  necessary  to  the  required  ac- 
curacy. Having  had  at  least  five  years  of  thorough 
instruction  in  the  mother-tongue  the  children  are  able 
to  appreciate  in  a measure  the  meaning  and  importance 
of  verb  forms  and  other  features  of  inflection  so  that 
they  are  ready  to  do  consistent  work  in  this  phase  of 
their  study.  In  addition  to  the  translations  referred 
to,  conversational  exercises  are  soon  introduced,  and 
at  the  end  of  the  second  year  some  facility  in  easy  con- 
versation is  evidenced.  Toward  the  close  of  the  middle 
school  the  children  are  able  to  read  the  language  with 
ease  and  to  converse  in  it  quite  fluently. 


156  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


English 

Class  II.  (Five  hours.)  Brekke’s  Elementary 
Reader  to  page  seventy-four,  studied  and  reviewed, 
besides  the  grammar  in  the  back  of  the  book.  Conversa- 
tional exercises  and  written  work  on  the  blackboard. 
During  the  last  half  year  an  occasional  written  exercise 
in  a book. 

Class  III.  (Five  hours.)  Brekke’s  Reader  for  the 
Middle  School,  sixty-five  pages  read  and  reviewed. 
Knap’s  Grammar.  One  narrative  per  wreek. 

Class  IV.  (Five  hours.)  Brekke’s  Reader  for  the 
Middle  School.  Required  portion  read  and  reviewed, 
while  the  remainder  of  the  book  is  gone  through  and 
in  part  read  ex  tempore.  One  narrative  each  week. 

The  study  of  English  proceeds  along  lines  parallel 
to  those  followed  in  the  German.  The  learning  of  the 
language  is  accomplished  chiefly  through  its  use.  Ex- 
planations are  made  by  using  the  more  familiar  wrords 
of  the  tongue  studied,  by  circumlocutions,  and  by  other 
similar  practices.  Grammar  is  resorted  to  as  a means 
rather  than  an  end.  It  is  used  only  in  facilitating  the 
acquisition  of  the  language,  not  as  an  end  in  itself. 
However,  at  the  close  of  the  course  each  pupil  has  be- 
come quite  proficient  in  the  grammar  as  wrell  as  in  read- 
ing the  language  and  in  conversing  in  it. 

History 

Class  I.  (Three  hours.)  Nissen’s  History  of  the 
World  by  Schjoth,  from  the  beginning  until  “Scan- 
dinavia in  the  Middle  Ages.” 


COURSES  OF  STUDY  IN  STATE  SCHOOLS  157 


Class  77.  (Two  hours.)  Text  as  in  Class  I.  From 
“ Scandinavia  in  the  Middle  Ages  ” to  “ Modern  Times.  ” 

Class  III.  (Three  hours.)  Same  Text.  From 
“Charles  V”  to  “The  February  Revolution. ” Review. 

Class  IV.  (Three  hours.)  Same  Text.  Reviewed 
in  its  entirety. 

The  course  in  history  is  very  rich  and  its  study  is 
entered  into  with  animation.  The  teacher  is  usually 
a master  in  the  subject  and  he  makes  the  work  of  great 
profit.  A considerable  amount  of  the  class  period  is 
devoted  to  a vivid  and  analytic  introduction  of  the 
work  to  be  done  at  the  next  meeting  of  the  class,  pre- 
paration for  which  shall  be  made  in  the  meantime. 
Problems  are  presented  and  purposes  are  indicated  so 
that  the  preparatory  study  may  be  done  with  some  de- 
finite end  in  view. 

All  facts  of  history  are  placed  in  appropriate  settings 
and  perspective,  correlated  into  a unity,  and  given  vital 
meaning.  Maps,  charts,  and  pictorial  illustrations 
are  provided  in  abundance  and  used  constantly. 
Frequently  historic  scenes  near  at  hand  or  known  to 
the  pupils  are  pointed  out,  minutely  described,  and 
visited. 

Teachers  appeal  to  the  sentiment  of  pupils  with  the 
aim  of  begetting  loyalty  for  the  fatherland  in  the 
hearts  and  minds  of  the  young.  I have  heard  instruc- 
tors grow  eloquent  as  they  warmed  up  on  phases  of 
Norway’s  history,  and  have  noted  the  flushed  cheeks 
and  snapping  eyes  of  the  children  that  bespoke  the 
national  pride  of  the  young  hearts  as  familiar  words, 
slogans,  and  songs  of  their  heroes  were  quoted. 


158  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


When  given  an  opportunity — a common  occurrence — 
the  pupils  enter  into  the  rehearsal  of  historic  events  with 
enthusiasm.  Every  mind  in  the  room  is  active.  They 
are  awake  to  the  situations  and  are  familiar  with  the 
scenes  and  literature  connected  with  the  several  stages 
of  development.  Replies  given  in  response  to  questions 
from  the  teacher  are  nearly  always  in  the  form  of  narra- 
tives, sometimes  occupying  ten  or  fifteen  minutes. 

General  history  or  history  of  any  foreign  country  is 
entered  into  in  a spirit  similar  to  that  characterizing 
the  consideration  of  their  own.  On  one  occasion  I 
listened  to  a review  on  American  history.  Among  the 
characters  taken  up  were  Grant,  Lee,  Harriet  Beecher 
Stowe,  and  Lincoln.  The  pupils  discussed  Uncle  Tom’s 
Cabin  with  familiarity,  Lee  was  considered  as  “The 
Napoleon  of  America, ’’but  Lincoln  was  the  one  to  whom 
most  of  the  class  period  was  devoted.  At  the  close  of 
the  hour  the  teacher  announced  a lecture  on  “Abraham 
Lincoln”  for  the  following  Sunday  evening  in  the 
Working-Men’s  College  (. Arbeiderakademi )*  of  which 
he  was  the  director.  This  incident  illustrates  the  way 
in  which  they  correlate  the  work  of  different  educa- 
tional organizations,  and  shows  their  interest  in  the 
important  events  connected  with  the  history  of  other 
nations. 

Geography 

Class  I.  (Two  hours.)  Arstal’s  Geography.  Nor- 
way and  Sweden.  Review. 

* An  organization  providing  a series  of  weekly  lectures  by 
men  of  prominence  from  various  places,  for  the  populace  and  espe- 
cially adapted  to  the  working  classes. 


COURSES  OF  STUDY  IN  STATE  SCHOOLS  159 


Class  II.  (Two  hours.)  ArstaTs  Geography.  From 
“The  Central  European  Mountains  and  Rivers”  to 
“'Asia.”  Studied  and  reviewed. 

Class  III.  (Two  hours.)  ArstaTs  Geography.  The 
foreign  continents.  Studied  and  reviewed. 

Class  IV.  (Two  hours.)  ArstaTs  Geography.  Re- 
peated or  reviewed  in  its  entirety. 

Two  books  are  used  in  the  study  of  this  subject. 
One  is  made  up  entirely  of  well  designed,  carefully 
drawn,  and  thoroughly  reliable  maps,  printed  on  a good 
quality  of  paper.  The  other  is  a text  giving  a good 
logical  statement  of  what  the  course  is  calculated  to 
include.  The  teacher  must  provide  the  major  portion 
of  the  information  by  his  own  initiative  and  through 
cooperation  of  pupils.  Illustrative  material  (. Anskuel - 
sesmidler)  is  provided  in  great  abundance  and  in  diver- 
sified variety. 

An  effort  is  made  to  impart  to  the  pupils  a satisfac- 
tory appreciation  of  the  conditions  prevailing  in  the 
countries  connsidered.  Their  colonization,  commerce, 
products,  topography,  political  subdivisions,  cities, 
population,  river  and  mountain  systems,  climate,  etc., 
are  all  carefully  studied.  The  course  begins  with  the 
geography  of  Norway.  Next  foreign  lands  and  con- 
ditions are  taken  up  and  compared  to  situations  at 
home.  When  the  various  countries  on  the  globe  have 
been  kept  for  a time  before  the  eyes,  a thorough  re- 
view is  given  which  occupies  the  greater  portion  of  the 
last  year  in  the  middle  school  course. 


160  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


Mathematics 

Class  /.  (Five  hours.)  Numbers  resolved  into  fac- 
tors. Fractions.  Some  Proportion. 

Class  II.  (Five  hours.)  Algebra:  Bonnevie  and 

Eliassen’s  text.  From  beginning  to  division.  Geom- 
etry: Bonnevie  and  Eliassen’s  text.  From  begin- 

ning to  right  lines  divided  into  equal  parts.  Arith- 
metic: Proportion  and  percentage. 

Class  III . (Five  hours.)  Algebra:  Bonnevie  and 
Eliassen’s  text.  From  division  to  equations  with  two 
unknowns.  Geometry:  Bonnevie ’s  text.  From  par- 

allelograms to  Book  IV.  Drill  in  percentage  and  in- 
terest. 

Class  IV.  (Five  hours.)  Algebra:  Bonnevie  and 
Eliassen’s  text.  From  equations  with  two  unknowns 
to  close  of  book.  Geometry:  Bonnevie ’s  text.  From 

Book  IV  to  close  of  text.  Review  of  entire  text. 
Drill  in  computing  solids  and  other  miscellaneous 
problems.  A few  hours  devoted  to  bookkeeping. 

One  of  the  most  favorable  features  of  their  instruc- 
tion in  mathematics  is  the  intimate  connection  they 
make  between  the  several  phases  of  the  subject.  Arith- 
metic, algebra,  and  geometry  are  never  wholly  separated 
from  each  other.  They  are  in  reality  interwoven  and 
so  definitely  correlated  that  each  contributes  to  the 
others.  By  constant  use  the  several  processes  become 
familiar  tools  in  the  mental  activities  of  the  pupils. 
Mastery  of  the  principles  of  the  science  and  ability  in 
their  use  are  the  ends  to  be  attained.  The  outline  of 
the  course  indicates  the  extent  of  the  field  receiving  at- 


COURSES  OF  STUDY  IN  STATE  SCHOOLS  161 


tent  ion.  It  is  sufficient  to  say  that  the  topics  are  all 
made  to  appear  plain,  definite,  and  vital;  and  that  they 
are  assimilated,  and  do  become  parts  of  the  growing 
life. 


Nature  Study  ( Natural  Science) 

Class  I.  (Three  hours.)  Botany:  Sorensen’s  text. 

Written  descriptions  of  about  twenty-five  plant  forms. 
Zoology:  Vertebrates  according  to  Sorensen’s  text. 

Class  II.  (Two  hours.)  Botany:  Sorensen’s  text. 

From  “The  Sunflower  Family”  to  “Plant  Structure.” 
Plant  analysis.  Zoology : Sorensen ’s  text.  “ Inverte- 

brates.” Review  from  treatise  on  insects  to  close  of 
book. 

Class  III . (Two  hours.)  Zoology  and  botany  re- 
viewed. Plant  analysis.  Henrichesn’s  Physics.  From 
beginning  to  “Properties  of  Air.” 

Class  IV.  (Three  hours.)  Henrichsen’s  Physics 
studied  through  and  reviewed  with  related  laboratory 
work.  Knudsen  and  Falch’s  The  Human  Body  I 
studied  and  reviewed. 

The  plan  of  work,  as  noted,  includes  botany,  zoology, 
physics,  and  human  physiology.  Each  subject  is  taken 
up  and  pursued  in  a consistent  manner.  In  botany 
plant  analysis  and  structure  form  the  important  part 
of  the  work.  A herbarium  is  made  by  each  pupil. 
The  study  is  brought  very  definitely  into  the  daily  lives 
of  the  children  with  the  intent  of  opening  their  eyes  to 
the  conditions  in  nature  about  them  and  of  developing 
in  them  an  appreciation  of  the  almost  unlimited  pro- 


162  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


vision  made  for  man’s  welfare.  Zoology  and  phy- 
siology are  treated  in  a similar  way.  They  are  cal- 
culated to  enrich  the  life  of  the  individual  by  bringing 
him  into  more  sympathetic  relations  with  all  living 
forms.  In  physics  the  child  does  some  experimental 
work  and  thereby  gets  first  hand  experience  to  accom- 
pany, clarify,  and  assist  in  evaluating  the  elaborated 
instruction  of  the  teacher  regarding  forces,  phenomena, 
and  laws. 

It  was  interesting  to  note  in  a recitation  chiefly  de- 
voted to  experimental  work  that  the  language  used  in 
conversation  was  carefully  scrutinized  and  that  errors 
were  corrected.  Throughout  the  curriculum  a very  de- 
finite effort  is  made  to  utilize  every  phase  of  informa- 
tion possessed  by  the  pupils. 

IV.  GYMNASIUM 

Religion 

Class  I.  (One  hour.)  Selected  hymns,  and  chapters 
from  the  prophet  Isaiah. 

Class  II.  (One  hour.)  Short  survey  of  church  his- 
tory. Brandrud’s  text  used  by  some  of  the  pupils. 

Class  III.  (Two  hours.)  Short  presentation  of  the 
Christian  faith  and  ethics,  without  text.  Survey  of 
designated  portions  of  John’s  Gospel,  the  Epistle  to 
the  Romans,  and  Revelations. 

The  instruction  in  religion  is  commonly  given  by  the 
city  pastors.  While  all  of  these  men  are  highly  edu- 
cated, many  of  them  lack  the  ability  to  awaken  the 


COURSES  OF  STUDY  IN  STATE  SCHOOLS  163 


minds  of  the  pupils  to  an  active  interest  in  the  subject. 
No  examination  in  religion  is  required  in  the  gymnasium. 
As  a result  of  the  formality  in  this  teaching  and  the 
lack  of  incentives  generally,  the  members  of  the  classes 
are  listless  and  inattentive.  I insert  a note  that  I 
made  in  reference  to  one  class  in  which  I was  a visitor. 
“Most  of  the  class  was  listless  all  of  the  time  and  all 
of  them  most  of  the  time.”  I have  on  a few  occasions 
heard  short  and  irrelevant  remarks  made  by  pupils 
in  response  to  direct  questions  by  the  instructor,  and 
among  the  pupils  it  is  accounted  no  reflection  whatever 
if  any  of  their  number  states  that  he  knows  nothing  re- 
garding the  situation  under  discussion.  The  work  ap- 
pears altogether  void  of  interest  and  without  profit. 

It  seems  almost  pathetic  that  a subject  of  such  im- 
portance should  have  its  richness  of  content  dissipated 
and  wasted  through  lack  of  incentives  or  by  reason  of 
unsuccessful  methods  of  presentation.  My  observa- 
tion of  the  work  from  the  beginning  of  the  primary 
school  through  all  the  classes  up  to  the  completion  of 
the  gymnasium  convinces  me  that  the  personal  and  con- 
crete presentations  in  the  lower  grades  are  very  success- 
ful but  that  the  formal,  authoritative  work  in  the  sec- 
ondary schools  is  little  more  than  failure. 

Norwegian 

Class  I.  A and  B (Four  hours.)  Pauss  and  Lassen’s 
Reader  IV.  1.  Njael’s  saga.  Holberg’s  The  Busy- 
bodies  and  Peter  Paars.  Part  of  Ohlenschlager ’s  Alad- 
din. Baggesen’s  Noureddin  to  Aladdin.  Hertz’s 


164  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


Svend  Dyring’s  House.  Also  in  A,  Ibsen’s  Vikings  at 
Helgeland;  in  B,  Ibsen’s  The  Feast  at  Solhaug;  Bjorn- 
son’s  Synnove  Solbakken. 

Landsmaal.  Garborg  and  Mortensen’s  Reader  for 
Higher  Schools.  About  forty  pages  from  Aasen,  Jan- 
son,  Si  vie,  etc. 

Fourteen  compositions  in  each  class.  Assigned  exer- 
cises: Impressions  from  the  summer  vacations;  what 

do  we  learn  from  Njaal’s  saga  regarding  life  and  cus- 
toms in  Iceland  about  the  year  one  thousand;  a char- 
acteristic of  the  “Busybodies”  by  Holberg;  Christiania 
as  a city  of  manufacture  and  industry;  a comparison 
between  the  east  and  west  of  Norway  with  references 
to  nature  and  commerce;  a painting  I like;  Norway  as 
a tourist  land ; do  not  put  off  until  tomorrow  what  you 
can  do  today;  why  could  not  the  Persians  conquer 
the  Greeks ; the  dark  sides  of  city  life ; what  circumstan- 
ces have  combined  in  giving  the  Norsemen  high  rank- 
ing as  seamen? 

Class  II.  R.  G.  (Five  hours.)  History  of  Litera- 
ture through  the  literature  of  the  North,  folk  songs,  a 
collection  of  Danish  and  Norwegian  ballads,  selections 
from  Asbjornsen,  Moe,  and  Holberg.  Romance  poetry, 
some  read  minutely  and  the  rest  cursorily.  Considera- 
tion of  Aasen  and  the  Landsmaal  movement.  Sixty 
pages  of  Garborg  and  Mortenson’s  Landsmaal.  About 
twenty  pages  of  Old  Norse  from  Nygaard’s  beginner’s 
book. 

Written  exercises,  frequently  on  topics  of  interest. 
Besides  all  this  each  pupil  must  give  a discussion  on  a 
self-selected  theme  before  the  class. 


COURSES  OF  STUDY  IN  STATE  SCHOOLS  165 


Class  II.  L-H.  (Six  and  five  hours.)  Holberg ’s 
Erasmus  Montanus.  Wessel’s  Kjaerlighed  uden 

Stromper  (Love  without  Stockings.)  History  of  litera- 
ture to  about  one  thousand,  eight  hundred.  Shakes- 
peare’s Julius  Caesar.  In  the  Landsmaal  selections 
from  Garborg  and  Mortenson’s  Reader  (excepting  folk 
songs.)  Old  Norse:  Nygaard’s  beginner’s  book. 

Some  pages  from  Thor  to  Utgard.  Twelve  written 
exercises  on  important  literary,  historical,  and  industrial 
subjects. 

Class  III.  R.  G.  (Four  hours.)  History  of  litera- 
ture from  Holberg  down  to  the  present.  Read  scrutiniz- 
ingly  selected  writings  of  Holberg,  Olilenschlager,  Werge- 
land,  Welhaven,  Asbjornsen  and  Ibsen.  In  the  Land- 
smaal read  from  Garborg  and  Mortenson’s  Reader  and 
the  writings  of  Vinje.  In  the  Old  Norse  read  the  re- 
mainder of  Nygaard’s  beginner’s  book.  History  of 
language  and  history  of  literature.  Many  written 
exercises,  largely  literary  and  historical  topics. 

Class  III.  L-H.  (Five  and  four  hours.)  Special 
study  of  selections  specified  as  examination  material 
including  the  writings  of  Holberg,  Wergeland,  and  Wel- 
haven. Landsmaal  from  Garborg  and  Mortenson’s 
Reader.  History  of  Literature.  History  of  Language. 
Twelve  written  compositions  on  important  topics. 

The  work  in  literature  throughout  the  gymnasium 
deals  with  the  masterpieces  of  the  language  in  an  analy- 
tic and  critical  way.  The  aims  are  to  familiarize  the 
pupils  with  the  best  productions  in  the  language,  to 
acquaint  them  with  the  lives  and  historical  relations 
of  their  authors,  and  to  develop  literary  appreciation 


166  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


and  style.  Accordingly  many  writers  are  included, 
translations  of  world  classics  are  utilized,  history  of 
literature  in  its  connections  with  general  history  receives 
attention,  and  ability  in  composition  is  encouraged  and 
required. 

Eddas,  sagas,  and  the  more  important  productions 
from  successive  periods  are  studied  in  minute  detail. 
The  Landsmaal  is  not  neglected.  When  any  piece  of 
literature  is  under  discussion,  related  historical  events; 
references  to  other  literary  productions,  characters, 
myths,  etc.;  the  life  of  the  author;  and  many  other  im- 
portant points  are  considered  exhaustively.  The  in- 
tricacies of  the  language  are  sought  out  in  patience  and 
made  familiar.  Every  known  device  for  completing 
the  literary  background  is  utilized.  Since  the  litera- 
ture of  the  country  is  a part  of  the  life  of  its  citizens,  no 
effort  is  required  to  secure  intense  interest  in  the  work. 

In  the  linguistic-historical  course  more  time  is  de- 
voted to  this  branch  of  instruction  than  is  given  to  it 
in  the  real  and  Latin  courses.  The  quality  or  class 
of  work  is  essentially  the  same  though  the  quantity 
is  necessarily  less  in  the  two  latter  courses.  A definite 
effort  is  made  to  place  each  pupil  in  possession  of  the  cul- 
ture represented  in  the  natiopal  literature. 

German 

Class  I.  A and  B (Three  hours.)  Gundersen’s 
German  for  the  Gymnasiums.  A,  sixty-seven  pages,  B, 
seventy-five  pages,  consisting  of  the  following  titles: 
Die  Sanger , Die  Burgschaft , Der  Ring  des  Polykrates 


COURSES  OF  STUDY  IN  STATE  SCHOOLS  167 


Der  Handschuh,  Die  Sonne  Bringt  es  an  den  Tag , Die 
Goldene  Repetieruhr , Wie  der  Meisenseppe  Gestorben  ist , 
Umzingelt , Der  Stumme  Ratsherr,  Zur  Geschichte  des 
30-jahrigen  Krieges , Landsknecht  und  Soldat.  In  B 
review  the  more  important  features  of  syntax  in  O. 
Kristiansen’s  Grammatical  Exercises. 

Once  every  week  a written  review  of  a lesson  read. 

Class  II.  (Three  hours.)  Gundersen’s  German  for 
Gymnasiums,  about  one  hundred  pages.  Fifteen  writ- 
ten exercises,  partly  reproductions  of  new  matter  and 
partly  write-ups  of  what  has  been  studied.  In  real 
gymnasium  some  supplementary  assignments  in  addi- 
tion (Das  Schneeschuhlaufen , Die  Lage  Kristianias , etc.) 

Class  III.  (Alternating  three  and  four  hours.) 
Gundersen’s  German  for  Gymnasiums.  Reading  fin- 
ished and  the  greater  part  of  it  reviewed.  Every 
second  week  a written  review  covering  two  consecutive 
hours. 

German  is  recognized  as  the  language  of  a great 
neighbor  nation  and  is  assiduously  studied.  Much 
time  has  been  spent  in  the  middle  school  in  acquiring 
the  language  and  now  three  years  are  used  in  introducing 
the  pupils  into  the  thought-life  and  culture  of  the  na- 
tion through  the  inner  contact  of  its  literature.  Some 
of  Germany’s  more  important  authors  are  studied  rather 
exhaustively.  An  endeavor  is  also  put  forth  to  become 
familiar  with  the  most  remarkable  events  in  the  history 
of  that  Empire.  Through  this  advanced  treatment 
they  perfect  their  knowledge  of  the  language  as  such, 
and  further  their  ability  to  converse  in  the  foreign 
tongue. 


168  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


French 

Class  I.  A (Four  hours.)  After  the  more  important 
parts  of  phonology,  Hermanstorff  and  Wallem’s 
Reader  in  French  for  the  Gymnasium  I.  pp.  18-108. 
The  most  essential  parts  of  the  grammar,  together  with 
many  exercises  in  translation.  While  reviewing,  special 
emphasis  is  placed  upon  reading  exercises. 

Class  I.  B (Four  hours.)  Hermanstorff  and  Wal- 
lem’s Reader  I pp.  1-55  read  and  reviewed,  together 
with  the  corresponding  translations  from  Norwegian  p. 
109  ff.  In  addition  pages  98-108  are  read  and  reviewed 
and  most  of  the  remaining  exercises  are  gone  through 
cursorily.  Wallem’s  Vocabulary  Part  I.  1 and  Part 
V.  6-9  are  studied. 

Class  II.  R.  G.  (Two  hours.)  Hermanstorff  and 
Wallem’s  Reader  II  pp.  1-31  and  104-112.  Grammar 
drill  by  references  to  synopses  of  grammar  in  the  be- 
ginner’s book.  Wallem’s  Vocabulary  Part  I.  1 and 
V.  6-10  studied  and  reviewed. 

Class  II.  Lang.  (With  Latin  five  hours,  without 
Latin  four  hours.)  Hermanstorff  and  Wallem ’s  Reader. 
Division  without  Latin  about  eighty  pages,  consisting 
of  Part  I.,  the  last  section  and  Part  II  selections  for  A, 
I-VI  for  B,  III,  IV,  VII,  XI.  Division  with  Latin, 
the  same  amount  excepting  B,  VII  and  XI.  Wallem’s 
Vocabulary,  review  V.  6-9. 

Class  III.  R.  G.  (Two  hours.)  Hermanstorff  and 
Wallem’s  Reader,  about  eighty  pages. 

Class  III.  Lang.  (Three  hours.)  Hermanstorff  and 
Wallem’s  Reader  I,  the  last  section  and  II  for  A,  I-X 


COURSES  OF  STUDY  IN  STATE  SCHOOLS  169 


and  for  B,  I-XIII  with  the  exception  of  a few  selections 
such  as  X in  A which  is  read  only  cursorily.  As  exer- 
cise in  ex  tempore  translation  use  Duruy’s  History  of 
France. 

About  the  same  amount  of  French  is  taken  in  the 
Latin  as  in  the  real  course  of  study  though  it  is  carried 
but  for  two  years  in  the  former  and  three  in  the  latter.* 
More  time  is  provided  for  it  in  the  linguistic-historical 
course  then  in  either  of  the  others.  Reference  to  the 
table  on  page  171  will  indicate  exactly  the  amount  of 
time  used  and  its  distribution  throughout  the  years. 

The  French  language  is  not  as  closely  related  to  the 
Norwegian  as  are  the  German  and  English.  Greater 
variations  are  noted  both  in  pronunciation  and  in 
vocabulary.  Almost  universally  the  Norwegians  re- 
gard it  as  the  most  difficult  of  the  three  foreign  languages 
to  acquire. 

The  study  of  French  is  not  begun  until  the  pupils 
enter  the  gymnasium  when  they  are  fourteen  or  fifteen 
years  old.  English  and  German  are  begun  three  and 
four  years  before  French.  The  teachers  believe  that  a 
mistake  is  made  in  not  beginning  the  study  of  French 
earlier.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  the  Norwegian  peda- 
gogues who  have  tried  beginning  instruction  in  the 
languages  at  different  times  in  the  school  course  are 
definitely  of  the  opinion  that  to  begin  the  study  of  a 
foreign  language  early  is  a distinct  advantage.  It 
seems  to  the  writer  that  American  schools  might  profit 
by  this  experience  and  introduce  the  study  of  languages 
in  the  lower  grades. 

* The  course  with  Latin  includes  4 hours  of  French  in  the  first 
year  and  5 hours  in  the  second;  the  real  course  offers  it  4 hours  in 
the  first  year,  and  2 hours  in  the  second  and  third  years. 


TABLE  XI 

Course  of  study  showing  weekly  hours  in  Christiania  Cathedral  School  (1910-1911). 


170  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


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COURSES  OF  STUDY  IN  STATE  SCHOOLS  171 


English 

Class  /.  (Four  hours.)  Brekke  and  Western’s 
Selections  from  English  Authors  for  the  First  Gymn- 
asium. The  regulation  sixty  pages  (matter  from  which 
examination  is  taken)  is  read  and  reviewed.  Forty 
pages  ex  tempore . One  synopsis  or  reproduction  each 
second  week.  Knudsen’s  English  Prepositions  and 
Synonyms. 

Class  II . R.  G.  and  Latin  (Two  hours.)  Brekke 
and  Western’s  Selections  for  Second  and  Third  Classes 
in  the  Real  Gymnasium.  Sixty-seven  pages  read  and 
reviewed  in  part.  Ex  tempore : Called  Back  of  Con- 

woy. 

Class  IL  L-H.  (Seven  hours.)  Brekke  and  West- 
ern’s Selections  from  English  Authors  for  Second  and 
Third  Linguistic-Historical  Classes,  one  hundred  and 
sixty  pages.  Merchant  of  Venice,  Act  I.  Most  of 
Brigadier  Gerard  by  Conan  Doyle.  Western’s 
English  Institutions  gone  through.  Otto  Anders- 
sen’s  History  of  Literature  to  “ Bacon.  ” Written 
exercises  each  week. 

Class  III . R.  G.  (Two  hours.)  Anderssen  and 
Eitrem’s  Selection  of  English  Classics,  thirty- three 
pages.  The  portion  from  which  selections  are  taken 
for  the  final  examination  ( Artium  Examen)  reviewed 
in  its  entirety.  Ex  tempore:  Called  Back  of  Conwoy. 

Class  III.  L-H.  (Seven  hours.)  Brekke  andWest- 
ern’s  Reader.  Obligatory,  Selections  3,  4,  16,  17,  11, 
19.  From  Otto  Anderssen ’s  English  Literature  the 
required  amount:  Swift,  Byron,  Thackeray,  Merchant 


172  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


of  Venice.  O.  Anderssen’s  History  of  English  Litera- 
ture. Western’s  English  Institutions.  Written  work 
each  week. 

Class  III . Latin  (Two  hours.)  Anderssen  and 
Eitrem’s  Selection  of  English  Classics,  forty-five  pages. 
Review  of  selections  from  which  examinations  are  taken. 

The  connections  the  Norwegians  sustain  with  the 
English  speaking  world  are,  perhaps,  stronger  than  those 
binding  them  to  any  other  people.  Norway  has  close 
commercial  associations  with  both  England  and 
America,  and  rarely  does  one  find  a family  in  Norway 
without  near  relatives  in  one  or  both  countries.  As  a 
consequence,  more  than  usual  interest  attaches  to  the 
study  of  English.  Strenuous  efforts  are  now  being 
made  to  introduce  it  into  the  curriculum  of  the  elemen- 
tary school,  and  such  change  will  probably  be  effected 
at  an  early  date. 

According  to  the  present  plan  those  who  graduate 
from  the  gymnasium  have  studied  English  six  or  seven 
years  and  have  gained  a fairly  definite  knowledge  of  it. 
They  are  able  to  read  fluently  and  converse  with  ease. 
They  have  become  familiar  also  with  much  of  the  best 
English  literature,  and  through  it  have  been  brought 
into  close  touch  with  the  life  and  culture  of  the  English 
speaking  peoples. 

Latin 

Class  II.  Latin  (Seven  hours.)  Schreiner’s  Short 
Grammar.  Inflection  and  some  of  the  rules  of  syntax. 
Ording’s  elementary  book.  Ording’s  Latin  Reading 
Selections,  pp.  1-36.  Written  exercises  each  week. 


COURSES  OF  STUDY  IN  STATE  SCHOOLS  173 


Class  III.  Latin  (Eleven  hours.)  Schreiner’s  Latin 
Reading  Selections,  pp.  30-67  and  73-88.  Livy 
XXII.,  chapters  4,  9-15,  16-18,  19-28,  42-55.  Cicero 
in  Verrem  IV.,  sections  1-14,  60-70,  72-81,  105-115. 
Schreiner’s  Short  Grammar:  Syntax.  Forty  written 

translations. 

Latin  is  included  in  the  curricula  of  only  about  one- 
half  of  the  gymnasia  of  Norway.*  It  is  taught  by  com- 
petent teachers  who  appeal  to  the  interests  of  the  pupils 
through  related  history  and  literature,  and  through 
promise  of  linguistic  excellence.  The  work  is  gone  into 
thoroughly,  drill  is  constant,  and  readiness  in  response 
is  demanded. 

Despite  the  excellent  quality  of  instruction  there  is  a 
general  feeling  among  the  Norwegians  that  the  study 
of  Latin  does  not  yield  the  immediate  and  substantial 
returns  coming  from  other  kinds  of  study.  While  they 
recognize  that  for  advanced  work  in  certain  lines  Latin 
is  a prerequisite,  they  are  convinced  that,  outside  of 
those  special  lines  of  learning,  contemporary  tongues, 
history,  biology,  industrial  chemistry,  and  other  scienti- 
fic subjects  are  more  beneficial.  As  a consequence  this 
branch  of  study  is  on  the  decline. 

History 

Class  I.  (Three  hours.)  Ancient  history  as  treated 
in  Raeder’s  text.  History  of  the  middle  ages  up  to  the 

* A school  law  passed  in  1896  omitted  Latin  from  the  course 
of  study.  Another  act  of  the  same  Storthing  granted  privilege  of 
offering  Latin  as  an  elective  in  several  schools. 


174  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


second  division  from  Schjoth  and  Lange’s  General 
History. 

Class  II.  R.  G.  and  Latin  (Three  hours.)  Schjoth 
and  Lange’s  General  History.  History  of  the  Middle 
Ages  and  of  Modern  times  until  the  Vienna  Congress. 
History  of  Scandinavia  until  1720.  Survey  of  its  more 
important  portions — oral  or  written. 

Class  II.  L-H.  (Five  hours.)  History  of  the  Mid- 
dle ages  down  to  the  French  Revolution  from  Schjoth 
and  Lange’s  General  History.  History  of  Scandinavia 
to  1720.  In  addition  use  two  hours  per  week  in  his- 
torical readings  including  such  topics  as  the  feudal 
system,  medieval  poetry,  the  university,  Venice,  crafts- 
men and  merchants  in  the  middle  ages,  Fredrik  II.,  Han- 
seatics  and  aristocracy  in  the  north,  William  Pitt. 

Class  III.  L-H.  (Five  hours.)  Schjoth  and 
Lange’s  General  History  finished.  Scandinavian  his- 
tory in  the  nineteenth  century.  Review  of  all  require- 
ments. Taranger’s  Social  Conditions  or  Civics.  His- 
torical readings  including  introduction  to  the  French 
Revolution,  state  rights  in  Norway,  general  culture  and 
political  development  in  our  time,  Norway  in  1814, 
historical  events. 

Class  III.  Real  and  Latin.  (Three  hours.)  His- 
tory of  Norway  since  the  treaty  of  Kiel  in  1814,  and  the 
history  of  Europe  after  the  Vienna  Congress,  using 
Schjoth  and  Lange’s  General  History.  The  more  im- 
portant features  are  presented  in  oral  synopses.  Be- 
sides this  Taranger’s  Civil  Government  of  Norway. 

The  study  of  history  in  the  gymnasium  builds  very 
definitely  upon  the  foundations  laid  in  the  primary 


COURSES  OF  STUDY  IN  STATE  SCHOOLS  175 


and  middle  schools.  The  supposition  is  that  the  pupils 
are  by  this  time  capable  of  getting  from  texts  the  in- 
formation they  contain. 

The  class  periods  are  devoted  partially  to  texts  of 
lesson  preparation,  but  mostly  to  free  discussion  and  to 
presentation  of  relevant  material  by  the  instructor. 
Bits  of  information  regarding  the  private  life  of  his- 
torical characters,  minor  incidents  in  their  careers,  and 
varied  personal  touches  given  by  the  teacher  infuse 
spirit  and  vitality  into  the  entire  course.  The  lessons 
are  brought  directly  home  to  the  pupils  and  they  are 
able  to  appreciate  the  fact  that  they  are  inheritors 
of  past  accomplishments  and  participants  in  present 
activities.  Some  of  the  most  interesting  and  enthus- 
iastic recitations  I visited  were  in  history. 

All  through  the  course  in  history  Norway  is  given 
first  attention  and  consideration.  Its  history  is  begun 
first,  all  along  it  is  made  the  center  around  which  the 
history  of  other  nations  is  grouped,  and  finally  it  is 
given  the  concentrated,  mature,  and  crowning  efforts 
of  those  pursuing  the  long  course  of  instruction.  The 
closing  year  is  generally  devoted  to  a study  of  social  and 
political  conditions  in  the  fatherland.  Norway’s  con- 
stitution with  its  many  provisions  and  administrative 
features  of  government  (general  and  local)  is  given  to 
the  youths  in  clear,  concrete,  and  concise  presentations. 
Upon  leaving  the  gymnasium  the  young  people,  there- 
fore, are  in  a position  to  appreciate  the  meaning,  privi- 
leges, and  responsibilities  of  citizenship.  While  they 
have  their  affections  centered  in  their  native  land,  they 


176  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


are  able  to  comprehend  the  relative  accomplishments, 
standing,  and  conditions  of  other  countries. 

Geography 

Class  I.  (One  hour.)  Haffner’s  Physical  Geography. 

Class  II.  (One  hour.)  Steen’s  Mathematical  Geog- 
raphy. Completed  and  reviewed. 

Class  III.  (Two  hours.)  Arstal’s  Economic  Geog- 
raphy. Review  all  requirements. 

The  gymnasial  course  in  geography  includes  physical 
geography,  astronomy,  and  political  geography.  It 
is  rich  and  profitable.  Under  the  head  of  physical 
geography  are  included  such  topics  as  physiography, 
petrography,  dynamic  geology,  history  of  the  world’s 
development,  the  earth’s  surface,  oceanography,  and 
the  atmosphere.  While  only  a general  survey  of  the 
respective  fields  is  possible,  the  pupils  obtain  a pretty 
fair  grasp  of  fundamentals  and  feel  that  they  have  a 
very  good  and  adequate  idea  of  what  their  home — the 
earth — really  is. 

The  work  in  astronomy  or  mathematical  geography, 
as  it  is  frequently  called,  is  concerned  chiefly  with  the 
earth’s  place  in  the  universe,  the  Copernican  system, 
Keppler’s  laws,  the  moon,  the  earth  (form,  size,  and 
motion),  the  celestial  world  in  general,  the  sun’s  ap- 
parent motion,  the  sun  as  a measurer  of  time,  etc.,  etc. 

Political  geography  provides  acquaintance  with  the 
earth  in  special  reference  to  man’s  presence  and  wel- 
fare. It  treats  of  his  means  of  livelihood,  ways  of  com- 
munication, and  the  conditions  under  which  he  colom 
izes,  builds  up  cities,  and  develops  generally. 


COURSES  OF  STUDY  IN  STATE  SCHOOLS  177 


Mathematics 

Class  I.  (Four  hours.)  Algebra:  Bonnevie  and 

Berg’s  text.  From  beginning  to  44 Series.”  Geom- 
etry: Bonnevie  and  Sorensen’s  text.  Entire  text 

covered  and  reviewed.  Examples  at  home  and  at 
school. 

Class  II.  Real  (Six  hours.)  Algebra:  Bonnevie 

and  Berg’s  text.  From  44 Series”  to  end  of  text. 
Trigonometry:  Johannesen’s  text.  Completed  and  re- 
viewed. Stereometry:  Guldberg’s  text.  Completed 

and  reviewed.  Analytical  Geometry:  Guldberg’s 

text.  From  beginning  to  “The  Ellipse.”  Problems 
at  home  and  at  school. 

Class  II.  Linguistic  (Two  hours.)  Algebra:  Bon- 
nevie and  Berg’s  text.  44 Series.”  Trigonometry:  O. 
Johannesen’s  text.  Solving  of  problems. 

Class  III.  Real  (Six  hours.)  Guldberg ’s  Analyti- 
cal Geometry.  E.  Holst’s  Higher  Arithmetical  Series. 
Review  of  all  requirements  in  real  course.  Solution  of 
problems. 

Class  III.  Linguistic  (Two  hours.)  Review  of  the 
entire  requirement.  Examples  at  home  and  at  school. 

In  addition  to  completing  the  work  begun  in  the 
middle  school  in  arithmetic,  algebra,  and  geometry; 
instruction  in  the  gymnasium  includes  trigonometry, 
stereometry,  analytical  geometry,  and  higher  arith- 
metical series.  The  methods  of  instruction  are  the 
same  as  those  used  in  the  middle  school  though,  of 
course,  adapted  to  the  greater  maturity  and  stronger 
mentality  of  the  pupils.  By  the  time  pupils  enter  the 


178  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


gymnasium  considerable  ability  should  have  been 
gained  in  working  independently.  Where  necessary, 
the  teacher  cooperates  in  solving  problems  and  makes 
sure  that  the  principles  involved  are  thoroughly  under- 
stood. 

Frequently  during  the  recitation  period  several  mem- 
bers of  the  class  are  called  to  the  blackboard,  one  at  a 
time,  to  perform  operations  under  consideration.  As 
the  pupil  develops  the  problem  he  explains  every  step 
taken  as  he  proceeds.  The  other  pupils  observe  closely, 
take  notes,  and  offer  suggestions.  The  instructor  care- 
fully supervises  every  move,  giving  explanations  when 
necessary  not  permitting  erasures  or  leaving  any  opera- 
tion until  all  in  the  class  understand  fully.  In  this 
way  hearty  cooperation  is  secured.  Every  mind  is 
actively  engaged  and  the  excellent  results  testify  of  the 
validity  of  the  method. 

Work  in  analytical  geometry  and  higher  arithmetical 
series  is  taken  only  by  those  in  the  real  course  of  in- 
struction. 

Natural  History 

Class  /.  (Four  hours.)  Chemistry:  Waage’s  The 

Chemistry  of  Daily  Life.  Gone  through  and  reviewed. 
Physiology:  Knudsen  and  Falch’s  The  Human  Body 

II.  Studied  and  reviewed. 

Class  II.  Real  (Five  hours.)  Isaachsen’s  Physics. 
From  the  beginning  to  “Heat.”  Review  after  having 
carefully  studied.  Exercises  at  home  and  at  school. 
Botany:  Th.  Resvoll’s  text.  Completed  and  re- 

viewed. 


COURSES  OF  STUDY  IN  STATE  SCHOOLS  179 


Class  II.  Linguistic  (One  hour.)  Botany:  Res- 

volTs  text.  Completed  and  reviewed. 

Class  III.  Real  (Five  hours.)  Isaachsen’s  Physics. 
From  4 ‘Heat”  to  end  of  text.  Entire  text  reviewed. 
Zoology:  Chr.  Bonnevie’s  text.  Studied  and  re- 
viewed. Botany : Th.  Resvoll  ’s  text  reviewed. 

Class  III.  Linguistic  (One  hour.)  Zoology:  Chr. 

Bonnevie’s  text.  Studied  and  reviewed.  Botany:  Th. 
Resvoll ’s  text  reviewed. 

Natural  Science  or  Nature  Study  in  the  earlier  years 
of  school  life  is  less  differentiated  than  it  becomes  in  the 
gymnasium.  Here  we  find  the  fields  very  definitely 
separated.  The  more  important  chemical  laws,  animal 
and  vegetable  development  and  growth  (botany  and 
zoology),  and  the  more  essential  features  of  human 
physiology  and  hygiene  form  centers  of  attention 
throughout  the  three  years.  In  the  real  course  physics 
also  is  stressed,  though  in  the  other  courses  of  study 
little  time  is  provided  for  it. 

Not  as  much  is  made  of  the  laboratory  method  as 
seems  advisable.  While  every  school  has  some  pro- 
vision for  it  they  do  not  go  at  it  in  real  earnest.  Only 
one  or  two  at  a time  can  do  first  hand  work.  The 
others  cooperate  mentally  and  get  some  benefit,  but 
they  cannot  reap  the  greater  results  which  immediate 
individual  experimentation  yields. 

One  day  during  the  progress  of  a lesson  in  zoology 
(where  I was  a visitor)  a supply  of  live  specimens  ar- 
rived from  the  marine  biological  station  at  Drobak,  and 
the  remaining  portion  of  the  hour  was  devoted  to  in- 
vestigations at  close  range.  Interest  was  intense. 


180  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


Pupils  dipped  in  (literally)  and  investigated  at  their  own 
pleasure  quite  informally.  The  material  was  soon 
divided  up  into  several  receptacles,  and  around  each 
of  these  gathered  an  eager  group  in  an  effort  to  use, 
handle,  and  examine  every  specimen.  Those  who  had 
no  interfering  appointments  for  the  succeeding  hour 
accounted  it  a great  favor  to  be  privileged  to  continue 
this  study  for  an  extra  class  period.  This  is  but  one 
illustration  of  the  interest  attending  laboratory  work 
where  each  pupil  may  handle  and  examine  for  himself — 
where  he  may  be  a doer,  an  active  participant  instead  of 
merely  an  observer. 


Chapter  IV 

INTERPRETATIVE  CONCLUSIONS 


THIS  chapter  is  for  the  consideration  of  some  of 
the  more  important  phases  of  the  school  sy  stem 
presented  in  greater  detail  in  the  foregoing 
chapters.  The  aim  is  to  bring  some  features  of 
Norway’s  system  under  close  inspection,  to  interpret 
them  in  the  light  of  commonly  accepted  pedagogical  prin- 
ciples, to  make  comparisons  between  them  and  our  own, 
and  to  suggest  possible  improvements  where  they  seem  to 
be  needed.  It  is  clearly  evident  that  school  practices  ad- 
mirably adapted  to  the  social  conditions  in  one  country 
may  be  far  from  desirable  in  another.  On  the  other  hand, 
it  is  well-known  that  some  educational  means  may  be 
equally  suitable  in  more  than  one  country.  Further- 
more, certain  fundamental  principles  are  effectual  w her- 
ever  education  is  attempted.  We  shall  hope  to  find 
some  things  worthy  of  being  adopted  bodily  by  us  and 
others  capable  of  transformation  into  shapes  calculated 
to  improve  our  educational  practices. 

THE  PEOPLE  AND  THEIR  IDEALS 

The  Norse  are  a sturdy  race  having  potentialities  cap- 
able of  great  accomplishment  when  once  aroused  and 
rightly  directed.  Conditions  prevented  these  capacities 
from  functioning  with  freedom  until  the  middle  of  the 

181 


182  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY  " 


last  century  when  the  store  of  energy  which  had  accum- 
ulated during  preceding  decades  and  centuries  asserted 
itself  and  effected  a rapid  rise  in  the  political  and  intel- 
lectual status  of  the  nation. 

It  is  believed  that  Norway  is  now  in  a period  of  transi- 
tion from  a condition  of  mediocrity  to  one  of  eminence 
among  the  nations  of  the  world.  Politically,  ethically, 
and  educationally  she  assumes  larger  proportions  daily. 

As  individuals  the  Norwegians  are  recognized  among 
the  leaders  in  literature,  art,  and  science,  and  equal  to 
any  as  pioneers  in  the  development  of  the  rich  frontiers. 
As  citizens  they  are  enthusiastically  welcomed  every- 
where. Climatic  conditions  and  habits  of  life  have 
given  them  the  sturdiness  of  physique  and  vigor  of 
mind  which  make  them  fearless  and  undaunted  in  the 
face  of  great  undertakings  and  critical  situations.  They 
have  become  habituated  to  overcoming  all  obstacles 
in  their  way,  and  they  naturally  concentrate  their  ener- 
gies for  the  achievement  of  their  desired  ends. 

It  is  reasonable  to  expect  similar  traits  in  them  as  a 
nation.  Their  past  actions  declare  these  same  tenden- 
cies and  their  present  attitudes  confirm  the  observer 
in  the  belief  that  the  history  of  Norway  will  continue 
the  story  of  regular  and  ever  higher  development.  Their 
strongly  democratic  individuality  seems  to  have  been  a 
factor  in  enabling  them  to  realize  and  recognize  their 
self  in  a very  successful  way.  Matters  of  importance 
put  the  entire  state  into  action  and  it  ploughs  through 
to  the  bottom  of  things.  While  very  conservative,  the 
state  will  not  permit  precedent  to  stand  in  the  way 
of  accepting  new  conditions  when  they  are  proven 


INTERPRETATIVE  CONCLUSIONS 


183 


superior  to  the  old.  After  thorough  examination  of 
every  detail  it  passes  judgment  on  the  situation  and 
then  stands  on  that  solution.  Conservation  has  been 
an  operating  principle  with  them  all  along  the  line.  A 
step  in  advance,  some  worthy  achievement,  new  or 
loftier  ideals,  greater  political  freedom,  and  the  like 
when  once  gained  are  always  retained. 

The  union  of  church  and  state  for  example  has  been 
to  their  advantage.  Matters  of  religion  and  politics 
were  handled  by  the  same  hands  and  as  a consequence 
both  were  strengthened.  Each  found  in  the  other 
sources  of  inspiration  and  power.  They  both  recog- 
nized education  as  a necessary  fundamental  means  for 
their  preservation  and  advancement.  Acting  in  the 
main  on  the  educational  ideals  of  Martin  Luther  the 
church  accepted  the  chief  responsibilities  in  the  direc- 
tion of  school  activities,  while  the  state  very  cheerfully 
undertook  the  burden  of  their  support.  Through  the 
processes  of  growth  direct  responsibilities  have  been 
more  and  more  shifted  to  the  state,  though  the  church 
continues  to  exert  very  strong  influence  and  render 
every  possible  assistance. 

Resulting  from  this  cooperative  activity  a system  of 
education  has  evolved  which  is  effectual  in  the  improve- 
ment of  the  state  and  in  the  maintenance  of  the  noblest 
ideals  of  the  church.  According  to  its  design  this  sys- 
tem of  schools  qualifies  all  children  in  the  land  for  in- 
telligent citizenship,  and  prepares  them  severally  for 
the  performance  of  every  function  of  state,  the  service 
of  the  church,  and  for  the  various  arts,  professions,  and 
other  occupations  of  life.  In  other  words,  Norway  pro- 


184  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


vides  for  her  children  educational  advantages  suitable 
to  every  legitimate  requirement  or  desire.  Thus  its 
school  system  develops  a loyal,  well-trained  citizenship 
capable  of  maintaining  its  highest  ideals  and  eager  to 
cooperate  in  moving  the  fatherland  forward  into  greater 
and  nobler  achievement. 

FACILITIES  FOR  EDUCATION 

To  satisfy  the  varied  requirements  of  the  nation  along 
the  line  of  educational  facilities  it  has  been  necessary  to 
establish  a complex  system  of  diversified  schools.  Fund- 
amental in  the  system  are  the  primary  schools  providing 
the  thorough  elementary  training  so  essential  and  effect- 
ual in  the  qualifying  of  citizens.  Following  these  are  the 
secondary  schools — middle  school  and  gymnasium — which 
afford  the  advantages  of  higher  education  along  the 
more  liberal  lines.  Besides  these  are  the  many  institu- 
tions— public  and  private — for  technical  and  profes- 
sional study.  There  are  general  technical  schools, 
schools  of  trades  and  manual  arts,  agricultural  and 
horticultnral  institutions,  naval  and  military  academies, 
schools  of  art,  teachers 5 colleges,  a technical  high  school 
— an  engineering  college  and  institute  of  technology  of 
high  rank — in  the  city  of  Trondhjem,  and  the  Royal 
Frederik  University  in  Christiania  which  is  devoted  to 
specialized  study  and  research  in  science,  letters,  and 
learned  professions,  including  theology,  law,  medicine, 
and  education.  The  last  is  provided  for  in  the  af- 
filiated Pedagogical  Seminary  recently  established. 

At  this  point  we  may  speak  a word  in  commendation 


INTERPRETATIVE  CONCLUSIONS  185 


of  the  important  part  played  by  private  institutions  in 
Norway.  Among  them  may  be  enumerated  primary 
and  secondary  schools,  teachers’  seminaries,  and  tech- 
nical institutes.  Being  of  high  merit  and  operating  side 
by  side  with  the  state  schools,  they  have  rendered  valu- 
able service  and  exerted  a wholesome  influence.  The 
state  has  recognized  their  work  and  expressed  its  appre- 
ciation of  their  efforts  by  giving  them  standing  and  by 
voting  annuities  to  certain  of  them. 

The  uniformly  high  standard  of  preparation  required 
for  entrance  to  and  the  close  correlation  between  the 
several  special  schools  make  easy  the  passage  from  one 
to  another  when  it  is  desired,  and  give  solidarity  and 
unity  wherein  cooperation  is  natural  and  mutually 
beneficial. 

It  should  be  noted  that  provision  is  made  for  the 
proper  care  of  the  exceptional  child  in  Norway.  This  is 
more  particularly  true  of  the  defective.  The  child  who 
is  dull  of  comprehension  along  some  lines  receives  in- 
dividual assistance  from  his  regular  teacher  or  another 
who  is  employed  to  do  the  work.  Recognition  is  given 
to  disparity  in  physiological  and  mental  age  of  children. 
Those  who  are  definitely  lacking  in  mentality  are  segre- 
gated into  classes  in  the  large  schools  and  into  separate 
schools  in  the  larger  cities,  where  they  are  provided 
with  abundant,  well-selected  equipment  and  expert 
teachers  who  exert  every  effort  to  improve  the  condi- 
tions and  to  overcome  the  handicaps  of  the  unfortu- 
nates. Morally  delinquent  children  are  placed  in 
children’s  homes — homes  for  correction — where  they 
are  supervised  and  taught.  Each  child  is  placed  under 


186  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


the  conditions  best  suited  to  his  needs — where  he  will 
be  most  profited.  All  of  this  work  comes  under  the 
authority  of  the  school  officials,  and  as  a result  there  is 
close  coordination  between  the  regular  and  the  special 
schools. 

yyNot  only  do  these  officials  care  for  the  mentally  and 
morally  delinquent  but  they  are  also  authorized  and 
required  to  take  children  from  environments  that  are 
likely  to  develop  evil  and  lawless  traits.  Unfit  parents 
may  be  deprived  of  the  control  and  authority  over  their 
offspring  who  are  taken  and  placed  in  private  homes  of 
moral  influence  or  in  children’s  homes  where  they  re- 
ceive proper  care  and  training.  Being  vested  with 
such  authority  the  school  officials  are  able  to  do  much 
toward  the  prevention  of  delinquency  as  well  as  to  at- 
tend specifically  to  the  individual  cases  where  a lack 
of  moral  responsibility  is  evidenced. 

Here  are  wholesome  lessons  for  our  American  schools. 
Instead  of  giving  sufficient  individual  help  or  providing 
expert  teachers  for  the  less  intelligent,  we  permit  them 
to  become  repeaters  or  to  drop  out  altogether;  in  place 
of  taking  the  child  from  an  evil  environment  before  he 
becomes  a moral  delinquent  and  placing  him  under 
moral  surroundings  in  some  good  home,  we  hesitate 
to  interfere  with  parental  rights — as  though  they  were 
greater  than  social — and  permit  him  to  become  a law- 
breaker; and  rather  than  give  to  school  officials  the 
authority  and  necessary  equipment  to  care  rightfully 
for  the  child  who  has  committed  some  error,  we  place 
him  in  the  hands  of  the  law  and  he  is  probably  sent  to 
a reformatory  having  neither  facility  for  his  proper 


INTERPRETATIVE  CONCLUSIONS 


187 


treatment  nor  any  connection  with  the  schools  what- 
soever. 

Closer  co-ordination  of  these  educational  functions 
and  institutions  would  prevent  much  misfortune,  cure 
a vast  amount  of  misery,  and  accomplish  more  effi- 
cient results. 

DIRECTING  AUTHORITY  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  SCHOOLS 

Norway’s  educational  authority  is  definitely  centralized 
in  the  person  at  the  head  of  the  Department  of  Eccle- 
siastical and  Educational  Affairs,  who  is  a member  of 
the  King’s  cabinet.  The  several  departments,  bureaus, 
commissions,  and  boards  for  control  are  radiations 
from  this  central  focus.  Furthermore,  their  schools 
are  parts  and  parcels  of  one  very  definite,  though 
somewhat  complex,  system;  each  class  of  schools,  in 
its  respective  field,  is  ordered  according  to  certain 
specifications;  and  all  are  co-ordinated  so  as  to  result 
in  a unified  whole  without  overlapping,  or  exposure 
of  ragged  and  loose  ends. 

The  controlling  features  of  greater  importance  such 
as  curriculum,  appointment  of  teachers,  plans  of 
instruction,  and  the  determination  of  qualifications 
for  teaching  positions  are  in  the  hands  of  the  higher 
authorities.  In  effect  the  state  determines  the  policies, 
the  officers  are  expected  to  respect  them,  and  the 
patrons  exercise  but  little  direct  control.  For  example, 
the  law  provides  that  completion  of  certain  grades  of 
school  work  shall  mean  practically  the  same  through- 
out the  country,  that  the  middle  school  and  gymna- 


188  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


sium  examinations  shall  be  uniform  everywhere  in  the 
state,  that  standards  of  academic  fitness  for  teaching 
positions  must  be  the  same,  and  that  teachers’  salar- 
ies shall  not  be  below  a certain  minimum  amount. 
Local  opinion  never  has  a thought  of  departing  from 
these  requirements. 

Being  vested  with  considerable  authority  the 
school  officials  are  able  not  only  to  make  suggestions 
and  recommendations,  but  also  to  enforce  all  school 
regulations.  This  plan  is  successful  in  securing  the 
most  efficient  service  of  which  the  officials  are  capable. 
They  are  expected  to  pursue  their  duties  and  perform 
their  obligations  according  to  directions  without  being 
too  largely  influenced  by  the  opinions  of  individuals 
or  community  sentiment.  Local  politics  plays  a very 
small  part  in  determining  what  shall  be  the  educa- 
tional trend,  though  the  patrons  of  the  school  do 
enjoy  considerable  liberty  and  bear  some  responsibil- 
ities in  arranging  minor  factors  with  reference  to  local 
situations. 

We  Americans  might  avoid  a vast  amount  of 
leakage  and  unnecessary  expenditure  by  improved 
organization  of  our  educational  institutions.  A uni- 
fied system  of  education,  manned  by  competent  officials 
with  some  authority,  might  easily  raise  the  standard 
of  efficiency  of  our  schools  several  grades,  and  at  the 
same  time  reduce  the  proportional  cost.  President 
Hall  has  given  optimistic  expression  along  this  line. 
He  writes: — “The  time  is  not  far  off  when  we  shall 
co-ordinate  all  educational  agencies  for  all  classes  of 
children  of  school  age.  . . . All  . . . insti- 


INTERPRETATIVE  CONCLUSIONS  189 


tutions  for  the  care  and  betterment  of  the  bodies, 
minds  or  morals  of  children  should  correlate  their 
work  so  that  eventually  it  may  all  become  so  consoli- 
dated that  each  child  can  be  placed  in  that  position 
in  the  whole  great  system  which  will  do  most  and 
best  for  it  at  each  stage  and  so  that  changes  from  one 
to  the  other  can  be  made  whenever  it  becomes  for  the 
welfare  of  the  child.  . . . Diversities  of  agencies, 
aims  and  method  should  increase;  and  incorrigibles, 
defectives,  homeless,  neglected,  backward  children  and 
the  rest  should  each  have  special  provision;  but  in- 
tegration should  keep  pace  with  this  differentiation.”* 

Were  our  public  schools,  reformatories,  schools 
for  defectives,  etc.,  etc.,  all  combined  into  one  system 
they  might  perform  their  offices  more  effectively  than 
they  do  now.  Instead  of  permitting  each  to  run  along 
independent  of  the  rest,  they  should  be  made  to  sup- 
plement each  other. 

Again,  it  is  a matter  of  common  knowledge  that 
in  our  own  country  high  school  graduation,  qualifica- 
tions for  teaching  positions  in  the  several  grades  of 
school  work,  college  entrance  requirements,  college 
degrees,  etc.,  are  without  uniform  standardization.  At 
present  even  a college  degree  has  meaning  only  when 
the  work  and  equipment  of  the  institution  granting 
it  have  been  carefully  estimated;  state  teachers’  cer- 
tificates may  or  may  not  be  valid  in  other  states;  and 
reciprocity  among  the  states  in  recognizing  certificates 
is  not  in  operation  generally.  While  state  certificates 
are  not  always  demanded,  some  of  the  states  are  now 
* Hall,  G.  Stanley,  Educational  Problems.  Vol.  I.  p.  294. 


190  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


requiring  that  all  teachers  in  the  high  schools  must 
be  college  graduates.  In  all  too  many  instances  the 
only  effectual  prerequisite  to  obtaining  a position  as 
teacher  in  the  schools — primary  or  secondary — is  the 
vote  of  the  school  directors.  The  gradation  of  educa- 
tional activity  according  to  a fixed  basis  and  the  rais- 
ing of  standards  in  academic  and  pedagogical  prepar- 
ation and  in  personal  fitness  for  teaching  positions 
would  make  the  schools  vastly  greater  factors  in  the 
country’s  progress  and  do  the  nation  an  inestimable 
service. 

Centralization  and  uniformity  in  authority  and 
purpose  are  distinctly  evident  in  every  school  activity 
in  Norway.  The  authority  of  the  state  is  clearly 
stamped  on  the  work  of  every  official  from  the  direct- 
ing head  to  the  last  in  position.  Everyone  connected 
with  the  system  feels  the  obligations  of  the  position 
occupied  and,  at  the  same  time,  recognizes  his  own 
security  while  keeping  within  the  limits  of  the  law. 
They  all  concentrate  their  energies  in  an  earnest  en- 
deavor to  realize  the  ends  which  the  educational  sys- 
tem is  designed  to  reach.  Even  individual  subjects 
of  instruction  are  presented  for  specific  purposes  which 
in  turn  contribute  to  the  general  end  to  be  reached 
through  the  course  of  study  as  a whole.  Purposes, 
aims,  and  ends  are  always  in  the  foreground  of  atten- 
tion, and  when  teacher  and  pupils  co-operate  and  are 
actuated  by  common  ideals,  their  efforts  are  sure  to 
be  vital  and  successful. 


INTERPRETATIVE  CONCLUSIONS 


191 


teachers’  training 

Proper  pedagogical  training  is  perhaps  the 
most  potent  factor  for  good  in  educational  ac- 
tivity. But  few  systems,  if  any,  adequately  meet 
the  needs  along  this  line.  Some  are  well  supplied 
with  institutions  devoted  to  the  training  of  teachers 
so  far  as  their  number  and  distribution  are  concerned 
but  they  are  lacking  in  quality;  others  have  training 
schools  very  high  in  quality  but  they  are  poorly  dis- 
tributed and  insufficient  in  number. 

The  ideals  and  equipment  of  these  special  institu- 
tions are  factors  of  prime  importance  in  determining 
their  real  values.  These  center  in  the  personnel  of  the 
directing  and  teaching  force.  Too  frequently  thorough 
scientific  preparation  for  the  specific  work  of  supervis- 
ing and  instructing  in  teachers’  seminaries  is  wanting. 
Natural  endowment  coupled  with  long,  varied,  and 
successful  experience  has  been  regarded  as  sufficient 
qualification.  To  be  sure,  native  ability  is  an  abso- 
lute essential;  experience  is  of  immeasurable  value; 
but  intensive  scientific  research  in  the  fields  of  child 
nature  and  development,  psychology,  and  pedagogi- 
cal principles,  together  with  scientific  methods,  are 
equally  indispensable. 

Now  it  is  a truism  that  teachers  teach  as  they 
have  been  taught.  Hence,  to  achieve  greatest  results, 
prospective  teachers  should  secure  their  education 
(general  and  professional)  from  ideal  teachers  as  far 
as  possible  and  obtain  experience  through  practice 
teaching  under  the  personal  supervision  of  masters 


192  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


in  education.  Preparing  under  such  conditions,  their 
natural  capabilities  would  be  brought  more  nearly  to 
maximum  efficiency  and  they  would  become  powers 
for  good  in  the  profession.  To  have  seminaries  so 
distributed  and  equipped  that  all  prospective  teachers 
might  have  the  best  training  within  easy  access  would 
be  an  ideal  condition. 

Germany  affords  an  unparalleled  example  in  the 
development  of  teachers’  seminaries.  No  other  na- 
tion ever  had  a system  of  training  schools  as  efficient 
as  the  one  there  provided.  Her  right  to  the  title  of 
“School  mistress  of  the  world”  is  in  large  measure 
traceable  to  the  excellent  training  provided  for  and 
required  of  the  teachers  in  the  schools. 

Norway  early  recognized  the  importance  of  this 
phase  of  school  work  and  established  six  teachers’ 
seminaries.  Subsequently  four  private  seminaries  have 
been  opened  and  the  state  has  instituted  the  Peda- 
gogical Seminary  in  affiliation  with  the  university  in 
Christiania.  This  gives  them  a liberal  number  of  train- 
ing colleges  well  distributed.  While  they  are  subject 
to  some  adverse  criticism  for  failure  to  keep  pace 
with  the  development  of  their  school  system  as  a 
whole,  we  must  admit  that  the  excellent  results  achieved 
by  the  schools  of  Norway  are  due  largely  to  the  early 
provision  of  these  seminaries  and  insistence  upon  spec- 
ial training  for  teaching  positions. 

It  is  probable  that  certain  normal  schools  of  the 
United  States  deserve  the  honors  so  far  as  ideals  and 
results  are  concerned  even  though  we  have  accorded 
first  ranking  in  system  to  Germany.  Our  plan,  however, 


INTERPRETATIVE  CONCLUSIONS 


193 


is  too  individual  in  nature  to  accomplish  greatest 
good.  We  lack  a centralized  authority  with  power  to 
do  things.  We  have  practically  no  co-ordination  be- 
tween state  systems  and  no  uniformity.  Even  in 
certain  states  the  several  schools  do  not  co-operate 
or  supplement  each  other  as  they  should.  The  waste 
occasioned  by  the  looseness  of  our  system  is  enormous. 
Could  we  unify  our  resources,  systematize  our  equip- 
ment, and  provide  efficient  direction  along  co-oper- 
ative lines  of  activity,  the  American  schools  would 
advance  by  leaps  and  bounds  such  as  have  not  been 
known  up  to  the  present  time  in  any  nation. 

A word  is  in  place  here  with  reference  to  the 
process  of  obtaining  professional  preparation.  One 
of  ithe  best  things  to  be  gained  by  special  training  is 
a jprofessional  attitude  toward  the  work  of  teaching. 
This  cannot  be  attained  by  spasmodic  effort  but  must 
be  grown  into.  It  comes  rather  as  a result  of  long- 
continued  study  and  application  of  principles  than  by 
intensive  training  for  a short  while.  Direct  instruc- 
tion and  experiment  extended  over  a long  period  of 
time  affords  Opportunity  for  innumerable  associations 
and  interrelations  which  no  “hurry-up”  process  can 
provide.  When  professional  training  and  study  along 
the  general  lines  of  academic  learning  parallel  each 
other  they  become  interwoven  in  such  a way  that 
each  contributes  to  the  other,  and  simultaneously  the 
proper  attitude  with  respect  to  educational  processes 
becomes  a jvery  real  part  of  the  student’s  life. 

There  ‘are  a number  of  important  pedagogical 
principles  which  should  become  ingrained  in  the  life 


194  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


of  the  individual  in  order  that  he  make  a success  in 
the  teaching  profession.  It  is  a generally  conceded 
and  commonly  practiced  rule  in  education  that  to 
thoroughly  master  any  field  of  knowledge  and  really 
get  into  its  vital  parts  it  is  necessary  to  keep  the  mind 
acting  upon  it,  at  least  intermittently,  through  several 
years  of  time.  Principles  acted  and  reacted  upon, 
viewed  in  this  light  and  that,  examined  under  a cer- 
tain condition  and  then  another,  and  tested  in  various 
ways  may  result  very  differently  in  one’s  life  than 
when  given  a hurried,  even  though  intensive,  examina- 
tion. They  are  certain  in  the  one  instance  to  sink 
deep  into  the  life  of  the  individual  while  in  the  other 
case  they  may  or  may  not  affect  his  behavior. 

It  seems,  therefore,  that  if  the  excellent  features 
which  now  characterize  Norway’s  Pedagogical  Semi- 
nary might  be  carried  along  through  the  whole  or  a 
large  part  of  the  college  course,  or  if  the  work  of  the 
seminary  might  be  supplemented  by  studies  such  as 
principles  of  education,  history  of  education,  child 
study,  and  psychology,  carried  along  with  the  college 
work  the  results  would  be  more  effectual — the  prepara- 
tion for  teaching  more  thorough.  However,  consider- 
ing the  short  time  that  has  elapsed  since  the  founding 
of  this  Seminary,  its  work  is  of  high  order  and  its 
ideals  are  praiseworthy.  The  expressed  intent  of  the 
director  is  to  develop  the  field  as  rapidly  as  possible 
until  it  shall  be  characterized  by  the  best  means  of 
professional  training  known  to  the  science. 


INTERPRETATIVE  CONCLUSIONS  195 


THE  TEACHERS’  LIFE 

The  life  of  the  teacher  is  one  of  service, 
calling  for  an  expenditure  of  the  self  to  an  ex- 
tent perhaps  greater  than  any  other  profes- 
sion. Among  the  Norse,  however,  it  is  not  as  stren- 
uous as  that  experienced  in  American  schools.  The 
Norwegian  teachers  have  more  time  than  we  for  recre- 
ation, self-improvement,  or  any  of  the  activities 
opened  up  by  leisure  hours.  Life  generally  is  set  at 
a more  moderate  pace  with  the  Norsemen  than  with 
the  rushing  Americans,  and  the  schoolmen  enjoy  the 
attendant  advantages  along  with  those  in  other  pro- 
fessions or  occupations. 

While  leisure  among  certain  classes  leads  to  idle- 
ness and  corruption,  it  has  quite  opposite  results 
among  the  better  class  of  citizens.  Windelband  says 
that  “The  cultured  man  is  he  who  in  his  leisure  does 
not  become  a mere  idler.”  The  cultured  men  of  the 
past  have  in  their  leisure  developed  science,  art,  liter- 
ature, and  philosophy.  They  have  had  reserve  energy 
after  the  performance  of  their  regular  labors  to  use 
in  fruitful,  self-selected  activities.  There  are  always 
innumerable  avenues  through  any  one  of  which  an 
earnest  servant  of  the  state  may  bring  great  gain  to 
its  people. 

There  is  no  nobler  profession  than  that  devoted 
to  the  development  of  youth;  neither  is  there  any 
occupation  which  brings  more  satisfying  recompenses. 
The  child  is  the  most  precious  asset  of  the  nation  and 
deserves  the  maximum  service  possible  for  teachers 


196  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


to  render.  To  perform  the  most  efficient  service  the 
teacher  should  have  health,  vigor,  and  time  for  recre- 
ation in  addition  to  scholastic  and  professional  quali- 
fications. When  school  authorities  make  conditions 
conducive  to  these  ends,  the  results  will  be  of  such 
character  that  teachers,  pupils,  patrons,  and  communi- 
ty will  all  obtain  greater  profits. 

Where  school  activities  are  not  overtaxing,  the 
teacher  has  opportunity  to  build  up  his  physical  being, 
increase  the  buoyancy  of  his  spirits  so  as  to  enthuse 
his  pupils  to  a greater  extent,  or  improve  his  educa- 
tional qualifications.  One  may  concentrate  his  efforts 
along  some  given  line  of  research  and  from  day  to  day 
give  the  pupils  under  his  tuition  the  benefits  derived  from 
these  specialized  efforts.  An  individual  by  persistent 
study  may  become  the  discoverer  of  new  laws  or 
truths  which  reach  the  ends  of  the  earth  and  pro- 
foundly influence  human  affairs.  Whatever  the  par- 
ticular activity,  leisure  consecrated  to  the  uplift  of 
mankind  is  sure  to  result  in  great  good. 

When  institutions  drive  their  servants  to  the 
limit  of  their  powers  they  must  inevitably  be  the 
losers  in  the  long  run.  They  extinguish  the  light  of 
ambition,  reduce  to  machines  the  individuals  who 
should  be  contributors  to  human  progress,  and  make 
legion  “the  man  with  the  hoe.”  Such  practice  in 
our  schools  results  in  waste  of  energy,  depletion  of 
our  teaching  force,  and  irretrievable  loss  in  many  ways. 

It  is  my  candid  opinion  that  the  rapidity  of  the 
evolution  of  the  Norwegian  school  system,  its  excel- 
lencies, and  the  highly  satisfactory  results  coming 


INTERPRETATIVE  CONCLUSIONS 


197 


from  it  are  in  large  measure  due  to  the  fact  that  it 
does  not  overtax  the  powers  of  its  teachers  and  edu- 
cational leaders,  but  on  the  contrary  allows  them 
opportunity  for  the  exercise  of  initiative  and  encour- 
ages a professional  attitude  towards  their  work. 

THE  CURRICULUM 

The  course  of  instruction  in  the  primary 
and  secondary  schools  of  Norway  is  uniform 
for  all  pupils  except  in  the  second  and  third 
years  of  the  gynmasium  where  diverse  lines  of  study 
are  offered.  The  arrangement  is  unfortunate  in  that 
the  individual  is  sometimes  required  to  pursue  sub- 
jects of  study  for  which  he  has  no  adaptability  and  in 
which  he  can  develop  no  interest.  Teachers  in  Nor- 
way tell  me  that  this  requirement  is  a great  handicap; 
retarding  the  progress  of  the  class,  demoralizing  the 
individual,  and  increasing  the  burden  of  the  teacher. 
More  flexibility  in  this  regard  would  doubtless  be  an 
advantage.  The  elective  system,  so  common  in  our 
own  schools,  when  rightly  supervised  preserves  suffic- 
ient coherence  between  the  studies  taken  up  and  gives 
opportunity  for  more  perfect  adjustment. 

Not  only  in  the  course  of  study  but  also  in  organ- 
ization, plans  of  instruction,  and  equipment,  the  schools 
of  Norway  are  too  uniform  to  result  in  the  freest  de- 
velopment of  the  intellect,  the  richest  growth  of  indi- 
viduality, or  the  greatest  conservation  of  time,  energy, 
or  money.  There  are  a few  variations  from  their 
regular  routine  but  these  are  not  sufficiently  numerous. 


198  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


One  favorable  innovation  is  the  promotion  of 
teachers  along  with  classes  through  a part  or  all  of 
the  primary  school.  The  consensus  of  opinion  seems 
to  be  that  better  results  accrue  when  a teacher  con- 
tinues with  a class  through  several  years  of  work. 
This  plan  is  generally  followed  unless  the  special  fit- 
ness of  a teacher  for  work  within  particular  limits 
renders  it  highly  advisable  for  assignment  to  be  made 
to  such  place.  While  special  aptness  for* a particular 
class  of  instruction  should  be  recognized,  the  promot- 
ing of  teachers  along  with  classes  generally  obviates 
any  tendency  to  staleness  and  usually  emphasizes 
special  qualifications. 

While  it  would  be  interesting  to  discuss  the  meth- 
ods used  in  presenting  each  subject  in  the  curriculum 
a few  must  suffice. 

Religious  Instruction  and  Moral  Education 

The  church  was  first  to  establish  schools  in  Nor- 
way, putting  them  into  operation  in  connection  with 
their  cathedrals,  probably  about  the  middle  of  the 
twelfth  century.  The  chief  aim  was  to  prepare  the 
pupils  for  a religious  life,  either  as  ministers  or  as 
faithful  disciples.  Having  these  as  definite  ends, 
the  materials  for  study  were  selected  because  of  their 
fitness  to  contribute  along  these  lines.  Instruction 
was  almost  wholly  in  religion.  Since  morality  is  such 
a fundamental  part  of  religion,  moral  education  in 
large  amount  was  given  indirectly.  The  aim  was 
religion  and  the  result  was  both  morality  and  relig- 


INTERPRETATIVE  CONCLUSIONS 


199 


ion.  Schools  came  to  be  generally  regarded  as  insti- 
tutions wherein  moral  and  religious  instruction  were 
the  prevailing  if  not  the  dominating  features.  This 
phase  of  work  early  became  traditional  and  gained 
such  momentum  that  it  has  ever  formed  a conspic- 
uous part  of  every  grade  of  instruction  throughout 
the  primary  and  secondary  schools. 

During  the  formative  period  the  instruction  in 
religion  maintained  a vitality  which  was  quite  in  keep- 
ing with  the  demands  of  the  times.  However,  as  the 
school  system  developed,  especially  during  the  clos- 
ing half  of  the  last  century,  it  became  necessary  to 
arrange  more  definite  plans  of  instruction  in  religion 
as  well  as  in  other  subjects  in  the  school  curriculum. 
The  adapting  of  instruction  to  the  various  grades  of 
school  work  was  a difficult  task.  The  adjustment 
made  to  needs  in  the  primary  schools  seems  a very 
happy  one.  In  this  elementary  section  of  the  school 
system  the  instruction  in  religion  consists  mainly  in 
story  telling.  The  work  is  made  concrete  and  person- 
al, and  its  influence  is  most  excellent. 

Not  so  fortunate  has  been  the  attempt  to  pre- 
sent the  great  truths  and  ideals  of  religion  in  the 
secondary  grades.  The  human  appeal,  so  fruitful 
in  the  lower  classes,  does  not  appear  in  the  higher,  at 
least  to  the  same  degree.  Instead  the  work  is  formal 
and  prescribed.  Interest  dies  out  and  even  respect 
for  the  work  rapidly  wanes  as  the  pupil  passes  into 
more  advanced  grades.  I have  often  thought  while 
observing  the  listlessness  of  the  pupils  during  the  period 
for  religious  teaching  that  the  effects  upon  morals 


200  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


and  religion  would  be  better  by  far  without  the  in- 
struction as  now  provided. 

To  find  lodgment  in  the  heart  and  expression  in 
the  experiences  of  youth,  religious  principles  must  be 
made  to  appear  practical  and  vital.  They  must  be 
shown  to  be  desirable  in  themselves  and  in  their 
ends. 

To  teach  religion  successfully  one  must  be  a liv- 
ing example  of  its  true  values,  an  earnest  interpreter 
of  its  meaning  and  power,  and  a sympathetic  friend 
of  the  pupils.  Besides  this  he  must  be  a genuine 
teacher  with  a knowledge  of  youth  and  ability  to 
help  others  obtain  a clear  conception  of  the  beauty 
and  worth  of  the  nobler  life. 

Religion  and  morality  are  so  intimately  bound 
up  with  life’s  activities  that  it  is  difficult  to  consider 
them  in  and  of  themselves.  It  is  quite  impossible  to 
curriculize  and  present  them  as  subjects  for  study 
and  instruction . without  building  up  in  consciousness 
the  idea  that  they  may  or  may  not  be  phases  of  life. 
When  this  is  attempted  it  is  liable  to  diminish  rather 
than  to  increase  their  true  meaning. 

It  is  at  least  possible  that  the  most  favorable 
results  come  through  specific  occasions  which  arise 
apart  from  set  requirements.  A genuine  experience 
in  real  life  is  the  best  illustration  of  what  morality 
and  religion  mean,  and  it  furnishes  the  most  secure 
foundation  for  instruction  along  these  lines. 

Few  lessons  and  no  subjects  of  instruction  can 
be  fully  presented  without  giving  considerable  atten- 
tion to  their  moral  and  religious  phases.  If  a lesson  is 


INTERPRETATIVE  CONCLUSIONS 


201 


completely  mastered  its  moral  and  religious  contri- 
butions will  have  been  taken  over  and  appropriated 
along  with  any  and  all  other  contents.  When  the 
moral  and  religious  values  inherent  in  school  studies 
receive  their  proportionate  emphasis  there  will  be  no 
crying  need  of  arranging  special  courses  for  their 
study.  The  seriousness  of  the  situation  at  present 
lies  not  in  the  fact  that  there  are  no  special  courses 
of  instruction  in  morality  and  religion,  but  rather  in 
the  condition  that  teachers  fail  to  recognize  their 
opportunities  for  giving  such  instruction.  They  should 
impress  the  children  with  the  fact  that  morality  and 
religion  are  component  parts  of  life  and  that  they 
give  meaning  and  reality  to  every  human  experi- 
ence. While  it  would  be  gratifying  to  see  these  sub- 
jects taught  as  separate  branches  by  individuals  who 
could  make  them  profitable,  it  is  much  more  impera- 
tive that  all  teachers  recognize  their  own  responsi- 
bility in  this  regard,  whatever  subjects  they  have 
to  teach. 

The  Classics 

In  common  with  those  of  many  other 
countries,  the  school  curricula  of  Norway  have 
been  saturated  with  the  classics.  For  a long 
time  the  secondary  schools  were  devoted  largely  to 
the  presentation  of  the  Hebrew,  Greek,  and  Latin 
languages.  About  1850,  there  arose  a demand  for  an 
education  which  was  more  utilitarian.  Nature  study, 
the  sciences,  manual  training,  modern  foreign  languages, 


202  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


and  home  economics  pressed  their  claims  for  recognition 
and  the  people  became  convinced  of  their  values. 
The  masses  then  began  to  investigate  what  right 
the  languages  of  the  ancients  had  for  occupying  so 
large  a proportion  of  attention  in  school  work. 

Gradually  the  ancient  classics  were  replaced  by 
more  modern  educational  materials.  Hebrew  and 
Greek  were  in  their  turn  dropped  from  the  list  of  re- 
quired subjects  and  the  time  thus  saved  was  given 
to  work  regarded  as  more  vital  and  beneficial.  In 
1896,  a very  decisive  step  was  taken  when  by  legis- 
lative enactment  Latin — the  last  of  the  dead  lan- 
guages— was  omitted  from  the  list  of  subjects  required 
in  the  school  curriculum. 

This  act  of  the  Storthing  has  been  severely  criti- 
cised by  some.  However,  the  people  whose  right  and 
duty  it  was  to  decide  studied  the  matter  carefully 
and  thoroughly  at  home  and  abroad,  and  after  calm 
consideration,  acted  in  harmony  with  their  best  judg- 
ment, passed  the  law,  and  put  in  into  immediate  exe- 
cution. The  momentum  of  former  practices,  the  force 
of  tradition,  or  the  example  of  other  nations  was  not 
sufficient  to  control  the  Norwegian  state  in  its  action. 
It  does  not  permit  precedent  to  determine  its  policies, 
foreign  nations  to  do  its  thinking,  nor  “well-enough” 
systems  to  prevent  reform. 

When  higher  ground  is  seen  clearly  Norway 
moves  forward  with  all  its  power,  determined  to  occu- 
py and  utilize  the  greater  opportunities.  Such  was 
the  condition  of  the  state  in  its  consideration  of  the 
classics  in  their  school  curriculum.  They  were  willing 


INTERPRETATIVE  CONCLUSIONS  203 


that  those  individuals  who  might  elect  to  pursue  the 
study  of  the  ancient  languages  should  have  the  privi- 
lege to  do  so  and  they  provided  for  them  such  oppor- 
tunity. However,  they  were  definitely  convinced  that 
to  require  all  pupils  to  study  these  subjects  in  order 
to  complete  courses  of  study  or  enter  the  university 
was  an  injustice.  To  their  credit  be  it  said  that  when 
they  are  convinced  that  a certain  course  of  pro- 
cedure is  best  they  have  the  moral  courage  to  pursue 
it.  In  this  particular  instance  the  people  were  fully 
aware  of  the  fact  that  they  were  taking  a step  which 
was  a decided  deviation  from  the  straightforward 
course  pursued  for  centuries  by  the  leading  national 
educational  systems.  Yet  they  became  converted  to 
the  idea  that  for  their  own  good,  under  their  own 
conditions,  and  looking  forward  to  their  future  as  a 
state  and  nation,  it  would  be  the  wiser  solution  to 
leave  the  classics  behind  and  devote  more  time  and 
energy  to  studies  which  they  conceived  to  be  more 
efficacious. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  the  recent  tendencies 
in  this  direction  in  other  countries.  In  the  United 
States  Latin  is  becoming  less  and  less  a required  sub- 
ject of  instruction  in  the  high  schools,  and  each  year 
lengthens  the  list  of  colleges  which  do  not  require  it 
for  entrance.  Even  conservative  and  classic-loving 
Germany  has  recently  opened  the  doors  of  her  uni- 
versities to  those  who  have  finished  the  Real-gym- 
nasia. Thus  they,  too,  acknowledge  that  the  way 
of  the  classics  is  not  the  only  road  to  higher  culture 
and  learning. 


204  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


It  has  come  to  be  almost  universally  recognized 
that  the  schools  exist  for  the  learner  rather  than  the 
learner  for  the  schools.  To  debar  an  individual  from 
privileges  for  which  he  is  prepared  simply  because  he 
has  not  met  certain  inherited  traditional  prescrip- 
tions is  rapidly  becoming  unorthodox.  Norway  seems 
to  have  set  the  pace  for  other  nations  in  at  least  this 
one  respect,  and  her  clearsighted  move  in  displacing 
the  classics  by  the  introduction  of  larger  amounts 
of  modern  foreign  languages  and  other  branches  of 
greatest  present  utility  is  being  followed  by  other 
nations  of  sound  pedagogical  principles. 

Physical  Culture 

Few  are  the  instances  where  the  physical 
development  of  the  children  is  so  effectually  pro- 
vided for  as  among  the  Norwegians.  Gym- 
nastics is  a regular  feature  throughout  the  entire 
course  of  study  until  the  completion  of  the  gymna- 
sium. In  addition  to  this  the  universal  rule  of  requir- 
ing the  pupils  to  go  into  the  open  air  during  the  inter- 
missions which  follow  every  class  meeting  has  its  good 
effects.  Athletic  sports  also  have  recently  become 
more  important  features  of  school  life.  Fortunately 
they  have  not  reached  a point  of  specialization  where 
their  values  are  open  to  question. 

Buildings  and  grounds  are  constructed  and  laid 
out  with  the  physical  welfare  of  children  in  mind.  As 
a consequence  we  find  gymnastic  halls  well  equipped 
and  grounds  supplied  with  the  advantages  most  essen- 


INTERPRETATIVE  CONCLUSIONS  205 


tial  in  the  accomplishment  of  the  desired  end,  viz., 
a strong  and  vigorous  body  in  which  to  develop  a 
sound  mind.  Their  school  grounds  are  small,  making 
a crowded  condition  the  rule  in  the  larger  schools. 
Strange  as  it  may  seem,  the  same  unfortunate  con- 
dition prevails  almost  universally  in  our  own  land 
where  there  appears  to  be  little  excuse  for  congestion. 
However,  the  size  of  the  grounds  is  perhaps  a matter 
of  minor  importance,  especially  when  compared  to 
their  use.  Space  and  equipment  may  be  regarded 
as  incidental;  use  is  the  all-important  part.  Our 
grounds  are  not  used.  We  rarely  have  but  one,  if 
any,  intermission  except  the  noon  hour,  the  greater 
portion  of  which  is  occupied  in  going  for  the  midday 
meal.  The  results  of  the  Norwegians’  enforced,  fre- 
quent, and  regular  use  of  the  play-grounds  are  in 
evidence  on  every  hand.  Robust,  vigorous,  buoyant, 
active,  healthy,  sound,  alert,  and  the  like  adjectives 
are  the  appropriate  ones  to  use  in  speaking  of  the 
physiques  of  their  pupils. 

Were  the  influences  of  bodily  conditions  upon 
mental  growth  and  activity  fully  appreciated,  the 
schools  would  doubtless  make  a sudden  shift  toward 
providing  adequately  for  physical  education.  Physi- 
cal development  has  been  regarded  with  considerable 
favor  for  some  time,  but  it  has  usually  been  a secon- 
dary affair  when  it  should  have  been  introduced  as  a 
vital  feature.  Educational  systems  should  provide  for 
the  training  and  development  of  the  physical  as  well 
as  the  mental  life.  They  are  dependent  upon  each 
other  and  are  in  fact  two  phases  of  the  same  life# 


206  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


It  is  obviously  wasteful  to  seek  to  develop  the  one 
without  regard  to  the  other,  or  to  attempt  the  culti- 
vation of  one  at  the  expense  of  the  other. 

Vocal  Music 

Music  is  among  the  most  potent  factors 

in  developing  national  spirit  and  loyalty.  Plato 
wrote:  “Any  musical  innovation  is  full  of  danger 

to  the  whole  state,  and  ought  to  be  prohib- 
ited. . . . When  modes  of  music  change,  the 
fundamental  laws  of  the  state  always  change  with 
them.”*  Napoleon  stated  that  if  he  might  write  the 
nation’s  songs  he  cared  not  who  might  write  its  laws. 
Music  in  the  better  forms  has  moved  individuals  and 
nations  to  great  accomplishments,  and  its  efficacy  is 
generally  recognized.  As  a means  of  education,  how- 
ever, it  receives  far  too  little  attention. 

The  quality  of  music  sung  in  the  schools  of  Nor- 
way has  some  points  of  superiority.  One  feature  in 
making  it  a powerful  contributor  in  developing  loyal 
and  competent  citizens  is  the  use  they  make  of  the 
best  compositions  from  their  own  writers.  Their 
poets  and  musicians  have  furnished  large  amounts 
of  excellent  productions.  They  sing  of  their  heroes 
and  of  their  national  ideals  and  achievements.  The 
spirit  in  their  songs  reflects  the  soul  of  their  father- 
land.  The  influence  upon  the  lives  of  the  pupils 
contributes  to  solidarity  of  the  nation  and  to  love 
for  its  institutions. 

* Plato,  The  Republic,  p.  424. 


INTERPRETATIVE  CONCLUSIONS  207 


Contrast  this  with  the  results  of  the  rattle  of  rag- 
time and  jigs.  Too  much  of  our  public  school,  Sunday 
school,  and  church  music  has  been  of  this  order.  Pub- 
lic school  music  and  education  along  this  line  are 
matters  deserving  more  attention  than  they  receive. 
Recent  introduction  into  many  schools  of  victrolas 
with  records  of  masterpieces  produced  by  the  leading 
artists  of  the  world  point  to  a recognition  of  the  edu- 
cative value  of  the  better  quality  of  selections.  To 
hear  the  same  productions  direct  from  the  soul  of  the 
artist  would  be  many  times  as  effectual  as  any  me- 
chanical reproduction,  but  this  is  beyond  the  reach  of 
the  masses.  Present  indications  give  assurance  that 
the  near  future  will  see  music  more  nearly  occupying 
its  legitimate  place  in  our  educational  provisions. 

LINES  OF  INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GYMNASIUM 

In  the  second  and  third  years  of  gymnasial 
work  three  courses  of  study  are  open,  viz.,  Real , Lan- 
guage-History, and  Language-History  with  Latin.  Here 
pupils  get  their  first  experience  in  electing  the  line 
of  work  wherein  their  study  shall  center.  This  seems 
a rather  fortunate  provision,  for  by  this  time  likes 
and  dislikes  for  certain  subjects  of  study,  special 
aptitudes  along  specific  lines,  and  choice  of  life  work 
are  coming  into  the  foreground  of  consciousness.  The 
pupils’  likes  and  aptitudes  working  together  influence 
their  decisions  concerning  life’s  activities.  Again  the 
disposition  and  nature  of  individuals  render  one  line 
of  study  more  attractive  and  beneficial  than  either  of 


208  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


the  others.  There  are,  indeed,  many  influences  at 
work  upon  pupils  of  such  age  which  make  it  appear 
highly  advisable  to  follow  some  particular  line  of 
study. 

Whether  pupils  go  into  the  chosen  line  of  life 
work  directly  from  the  gymnasium  or  by  way  of  the 
university,  it  is  of  distinct  advantage  to  specialize 
along  the  line  for  which  they  are  preparing.  Should 
they  intend  to  teach,  they  would  doubtless  prefer 
studying  most  the  subjects  to  be  taught.  In  these 
they  would  have  deepest  interest,  and  from  their  pur- 
suit they  would  derive  greatest  profit.  If  they  de- 
termined to  study  theology,  law,  medicine,  or  some 
other  special  phase  of  learning,  they  would  make  se- 
lection of  gymnasial  course  with  that  object  in  view. 
Whatever  the  work  to  follow  completion  of  the  gymna- 
sium, the  different  courses  prepare  for  the  narrower 
specialization  which  characterizes  life’s  activities  and 
all  their  university  study. 

The  following  table  presents  the  exact  work  rep- 
resented by^the  three  courses  in  form  convenient  for 
comparisons. 


INTERPRETATIVE  CONCLUSIONS  209 


TABLE  XII. 

The  Three  Courses  of  Study  in  the  Gymnasia  of  Norway 
Showing  Weekly  Hours  Given  to  Each  Subject.* 


i 

1 

II 

III 

I 

2 

II  III 

I 

3 

II 

III 

Religion 

i 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

Norwegian 

5 

6 

6 

5 

6 

7 

5 

6 

6 

German 

4 

3 

3 

4 

3 

3 

4 

3 

3 

English 

4 

2 

1 

4 

7 

7 

4 

2 

1 

French 

4 

2 

2 

4 

3 

5 

4 

3 

3 

Latin 

7 

11 

History 

3 

3 

3 

3 

5 

5 

3 

3 

3 

Geography 

2 

1 

2 

2 

Natural  Science 

4 

5 

7 

4 

2 

4 

2 

Mathematics 

5 

6 

6 

5 

3 

5 

3 

Drawing 

1 

1 

30 

31 

31 

30 

30 

30 

30 

30 

30 

*1.  Singing  and  gymnastics — 5 or  6 hours  per 
week  are  omitted  from  the  table. 

2.  1,  Real  course,  2,  Language-History  course, 

3,  Language-History  course  with  Latin. 

As  the  table  shows,  the  three  courses  are  identical 
during  the  first  year  and  uniform  in  religion  and  Ger- 
man throughout  the  three  Jyears.  The  Language- 


210  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


History  course  lends  itself  favorably  for  purposes  of 
comparison.  It  stresses  the  importance  of  several 
modem  languages  and  history,  giving  to  them  a pre- 
eminence over  all  other  work.  The  Real  course  re- 
duces the  work  in  English,  French,  Norwegian,  and 
History  and  increases  the  amount  of  science  and 
mathematics.  The  course  including  Latin  makes  sim- 
ilar reductions  but  emphasizes  Latin  instead  of  the 
sciences  and  mathematics. 

The  Norwegians  believe  it  better  and  cheaper  to 
offer  the  different  courses  in  the  same  school  than  to 
provide  separate  schools.  This  plan  necessitates  less 
duplication  and  at  the  same  time  affords  quite  as 
adequate  facilities  for  whatever  specialization  the  dif- 
ferent courses  represent. 

CO-EDUCATION 

Whether  schools  should  be  co-educational  has 
been  a live  question  among  many  nations  for  gen- 
erations, and  considerable  time  will  yet  elapse  be- 
fore unanimity  of  opinion  is  reached. 

Nearly  all  the  schools  of  Norway  are  co-educa- 
tional.  However,  in  some  of  the  city  systems  boys 
and  girls  use  different  playgrounds,  and  in  certain 
schools  they  are  segregated  also  for  purposes  of  in- 
struction. These  matters  are  governed  according  to 
the  wishes  of  the  inspector  or  the  desires  of  the  prin- 
cipals of  the  different  schools.  The  aim  is  to  combine 
the  better  phases  represented  in  various  methods  and 
to  adopt  the  plan  best  suited  to  the  local  situation. 


INTERPRETATIVE  CONCLUSIONS  211 


or  the  one  to  which  the  person  in  charge  is  converted 
and  in  which  he  can,  because  of  his  convictions,  accom- 
plish best  results. 

“The  separation  of  the  sexes  is  complete  in  all 
the  schools  of  Germany  excepting  some  of  the  pri- 
mary classes.  The  advisability  of  this  is  a large  ques- 
tion, but  by  no  means  a settled  one.  . . . Ger- 

many feels  that  she  has  the  proper  solution,  while  in 
America,  with  an  opposite  answer,  we  feel  for  the 
most  part  satisfied.”* 

In  American  public  schools  co-education  is  al- 
most universally  practiced.  In  reference  to  this  mat- 
ter we  give  the  opinions  of  some  prominent  educa- 
tors. The  lamented  Dr.  Harris,  while  engaged  in  the 
St.  Louis,  Mo.,  schools,  wrote:  “Discipline  has  im- 

proved continually  with  the  adoption  of  mixed  schools; 

. the  mixing  of  the  male  and  female  depart- 
ments of  a school  has  always  been  followed  by  improve- 
ment in  discipline,  not  merely  on  the  part  of  the  boys, 
but  on  that  of  the  girls  as  well.  The  rudeness  and 
abandon  which  prevail  among  boys  when  separate  at 
once  give  place  to  self-restraint  in  the  presence  of 
girls.  The  prurient  sentimentality  engendered  by 
educating  girls  apart  from  boys  . . . disappears 

almost  entirely  in  mixed  schools.”f  The  Honorable 
John  Eaton  while  Commissioner  of  Education  of  the 
United  States  made  report  concerning  the  co-education 
of  the  sexes  in  several  hundred  large  and  small  cities 

* Bolton,  F.  E.,  The  Secondary  School  System  of  Germany, 
375. 

t Report  of  Bureau  of  Education,  1891-1892,  Vol.  II.  p.  807. 


212  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


in  the  Union.  The  tenor  of  the  entire  report  is  well 
summarized  in  the  following  sentence:  “We  are  cre- 

ated male  and  female;  all  the  impulses  and  activities 
of  nature  enforce  co-education;  if  we  must  live  to- 
gether we  must  be  educated  to  that  end;  to  educate 
separately  is  an  attempt  to  change  the  natural  order 
of  human  economy.”* 

In  our  higher  institutions  of  learning  the  situa- 
tion is  much  the  same.  The  Commissioner  of  Edu- 
cation, referring  to  the  State  University  of  Iowa, 
writes,  “The  report  of  the  president  says  that  the 
experience  of  the  institution  has  uniformly  been  fav- 
orable to  the  co-education  of  the  sexes;  that  their 
influence  on  each  other  in  the  acquisition  of  learning 
has  been  most  beneficial  as  well  as  conducive  to  orderly 
habits.  The  presence  of  both  sexes  is  considered  ‘an 
invaluable  feature’  in  restraining  indecorum  and  an 
‘inducement  to  every  virtue.’  ”f  The  practice  has 
continued  with  similar  results  throughout  the  entire 
country. 

Instances  favorable  to  co-education  might  be 
multiplied.  Its  adoption  has  become  a foregone  con- 
clusion so  far  as  our  general  system  of  education  is 
concerned.  True  we  do  have  some  colleges  and  a 
few  secondary  schools  devoting  themselves  exclusively 
to  the  education  of  one  or  the  other  of  the  sexes.  Not 
many  of  them  are  state  institutions.  They  are  usually 
private  schools  and  they  answer  a certain  demand 
whether  well  founded  or  not. 

* Special  Report,  No.  2,  1883. 

t Report  of  Commissioner  of  Education,  1878,  p.  71. 


INTERPRETATIVE  CONCLUSIONS  213 


There  are  certain  questions  in  connection  with 
the  education  of  the  sexes  which  are  fundamental 
and  need  considerable  attention.  However,  no  at- 
tempt can  be  made  here  to  solve  the  many  important 
problems  suggested.  It  is  the  intent  only  to  emphasize 
the  necessity  of  being  awake  to  real  conditions  and  to 
indicate  the  fact  that  herein  lies  a field  for  the  educa- 
tor’s most  careful  consideration. 

The  questions  arise:  Are  the  natural  functions 

of  man  and  woman  enough  alike  to  justify  making 
their  education  identical,  and  will  the  adoption  of 
such  a plan  of  education  result  in  the  advancement 
or  deterioration  of  the  race?  A recent  article  referring 
“to  the  endeavor  to  use  women  industrially,  socially, 
and  politically  on  the  same  footing  as  men”  sounds 
a warning  note,  crying  out  against  the  present  tenden- 
cies which  are  taking  from  the  flower  of  womankind 
thousands  who  are  eminently  fitted  for  motherhood, 
“woman’s  essential  function  on  the  globe,”  and 
diverting  their  lives  to  other  and  less  noble  pursuits. 
“It  is  therefore  essential  to  the  race,”  say  the  authors, 
“that  the  ablest,  healthiest,  and  finest  women  should 
be  encouraged,  tempted,  compelled,  if  necessary,  by 
circumstances  to  devote  themselves  to  family  life  by 
becoming  wives  and  mothers,  and  it  is  doubtful  how 
far  it  is  expedient  to  draw  them  off,  even  for  a time  to 
other  occupations.”* 

While  co-education  is  in  agreement  with  condi- 
tions of  family  life,  is  economic,  and  continues  to  be 

* Whetham,  W.  C.  D.  and  C.  D.,  Decadence  and  Civilization, 
The  Hibbert  Journal,  Vol.  X.  No.  1. 


214  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


entirely  practicable,  the  question  still  remains  whether 
there  may  not  be  justification  in  a demand  for  certain 
fundamental  differences  to  be  made  in  adapting  edu- 
cational means  and  matter  to  the  two  sexes.  Co-edu- 
cation, however,  may  continue  without  making  the 
education  of  the  sexes  identical.  In  fact  it  is  very 
easily  possible  to  make  the  education  of  the  sexes 
fundamentally  different  even  though  both  institutions 
and  class  activities  are  co-educational  in  practice. 
A difference  in  the  amount  of  work  in  certain  groups 
of  subjects  required  of  men  and  women,  respectively, 
might  furnish  a satisfying  solution  of  this  question. 
And  if  there  are  certain  branches  of  study  which  should 
belong  exclusively  to  one  or  the  other  of  the  sexes, 
it  is  a simple  matter  to  separate  for  such  work.  On 
the  whole  it  seems  to  the  writer  highly  advisable  to 
educate  the  sexes  together  as  far  as  possible. 

THE  SCHOOL  YEAR 

The  regular  school  year  in  Norway  has  forty 
weeks  of  six  days  each.  The  plan  of  having  school 
on  Saturdays  furnishes  an  additional  day  of  fruitful, 
well  directed  activity  to  the  children,  who  might  other- 
wise be  permitted  to  spend  the  time  in  idleness  or 
misguided  conduct. 

In  America  we  have  so  many  vacations  and  holi- 
days that  our  schools  are  in  session  only  about  75  or 
80  per  cent  of  the  time  utilized  in  Norway.  We  may 
be  justified  in  having  the  long  summer  vacations 
because  of  the  inconvenience  and  depletion  of  strength 


INTERPRETATIVE  CONCLUSIONS  215 


occasioned  by  the  heat,  but  several  of  our  vacations 
during  the  year  and  the  practice  of  having  no  school 
on  Saturdays  are  inheritances  without  much  justi- 
fication. School  activities,  when  rightly  conducted, 
should  be  invigorating  and  exhilarating  instead  of 
producing  a state  of  prolonged  fatigue  requiring  sea- 
sons of  inactivity  or  other  changes  in  order  to  regain 
lost  vitality.  Again,  the  relaxation  occasioned  by 
diversion  of  thought  and  change  of  activity  on  Sunday 
is  certainly  sufficient  to  counteract  any  necessity  of 
using  Saturday  for  recuperation.  It  appears  evident 
that  we  are  not  as  frugal  in  this  matter  as  sound  judg- 
ment demands  that  we  should  be. 

SCHOOL  LUNCHES 

It  has  been  found  that  mental  activity  is 
very  greatly  affected  by  conditions  of  nutrition. 
The  quality,  quantity,  and  preparation  of  foods, 
together  with  regularity  in  eating,  determine  to 
a considerable  extent  what  may  be  the  progress  of 
the  pupil  in  his  growth,  both  mental  and  physical. 
The  child  who  is  improperly  fed  or  underfed  is  there- 
by handicapped,  while  the  one  who  receives  intelli- 
gent care  along  the  same  line  is  placed  at  a distinct 
advantage. 

That  in  all  large  cities  there  are  hundreds  and 
thousands  of  underfed  children  is  a fact  of  common 
knowledge.  In  many  cities  provisions  have  been  made 
for  supplying  at  least  one  meal  per  day  free  of  charge 
to  all  needy  pupils.  Norway  has  been  in  the  forefront 


216  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


in  this  paternalistic  movement.  Several  of  her  cities 
have  undertaken  this  noble  work  and  probably  no 
city  in  the  world  can  boast  of  more  adequate  facili- 
ties for  carrying  it  on  than  Christiania. 

They  purchase  the  best  procurable  quality  of  the 
most  nutritious  food,  prepare  it  in  a wholesome  and 
palatable  manner,  and  send  it  out  from  a central 
kitchen  to  the  several  primary  schools  of  the  city  in 
such  quantities  as  are  needed  to  liberally  supply  the 
demands.  The  food  is  served  hot  in  the  regular  lunch 
rooms  absolutely  free  to  all  children  whose  parents  ask 
it  and  at  first  cost  to  others.  This  work  in  Christiania 
is  typical  of  the  provisions  made  in  other  cities  but 
the  equipment,  and  possibly  the  system  of  distribu- 
tion, is  superior  to  that  found  elsewhere. 

In  addition  to  this,  nutritious  and  easily  digested 
foods  and  drinks  are  provided  at  other  schools  and 
served  at  a moderate  cost  in  the  lunch  rooms  at  stated 
hours  in  the  day.  This  latter  provision  is  generally 
in  charge  of  the  family  of  the  janitor  of  the  building 
and  is  most  common  in  the  private  and  secondary 
schools  to  which  the  previously  mentioned  plan  does 
not  extend. 

Experiment  has  demonstrated  in  our  own  land 
that  it  is  entirely  practicable  to  provide  at  a minimum 
cost  warm,  well-cooked,  wholesome  foods  to  either 
supplement  or  replace  the  cold  indigestible  lunches 
so  commonly  carried  by  school  children.  The  cities 
and  towns  enjoy  few  if  any  advantages  over  the  rural 
districts  in  this  regard.  The  plan  is  workable  and 
advisable,  and  it  should  be  more  commonly  adopted. 


INTERPRETATIVE  CONCLUSIONS  2 1 7 


COMPARATIVE  ATTAINMENTS 

In  the  study  of  the  school  system  of 
Norway  it  is  interesting  to  compare  the  school 
life  and  attainments  of  the  pupils  with  those 
of  American  children.  It  is  true  that  until  we 
have  established  norms  for  measuring  the  results 
of  education,  we  cannot  make  accurate  statements 
regarding  the  relative  standing  of  pupils  nor  estimate 
precisely  their  accomplishments.  However,  we  are 
able  to  single  out  some  features  of  importance  and 
compare  them  in  a general  way. 

It  has  been  noted  that  the  Norwegian  pupils 
begin  school  at  seven  years  of  age,  while  the  American 
children  commence  at  five  or  six.  Many  prominent 
educators  believe  that  our  American  children  start 
to  school  too  young.  They  are  of  the  opinion  that 
their  development,  physical  and  mental,  would  be 
better  if  they  did  not  begin  formal  school  work  until 
at  least  seven  or  eight  years  of  age.  The  greater  phy- 
sical development  of  the  Norwegians,  due  to  their  later 
start,  gives  them  a distinct  advantage.  Their  bodily 
strength  and  vigor  supplement  and  aid  their  mental 
growth. 

Passing  through  Norway’s  successive  grades  of 
school  to  the  completion  of  the  gymnasium  requires 
twelve  years.  The  same  length  of  time  is  used  in 
reaching  graduation  from  our  American  high  school. 
Now  it  is  generally  conceded  that  a graduate  of  the 
gymnasium  in  Norway  is  two  years  in  advance  of  a 
graduate  of  the  American  high  school;  or  in  other 


218  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


words  a student  entering  the  university  from  Nor- 
way’s gymnasial  course  has  an  education  equivalent 
to  that  of  an  individual  entering  the  junior  year  of 
work  in  an  American  college  or  university.  Some 
would  rank  the  Norwegian  even  higher  than  I have 
here  suggested;  however,  only  a very  general  compar- 
ison can  be  made. 

In  consideration  of  these  conditions  the  question 
arises:  How  shall  we  account  for  the  fact  that  we 

use  two  extra  years  in  order  to  reach  approximately 
the  same  standard?  It  is  recalled  that  the  Norwegian 
entering  school  at  seven  and  progressing  at  the  normal 
rate  are  ready  for  university  work  at  nineteen  while 
the  Americans  begin  two  years  earlier  in  order  to  reach 
the  same  attainments  at  the  same  age.  If  the  Nor- 
wegian pupils  accomplish  as  much  in  twelve  years, 
beginning  at  seven  years  of  age,  as  our  American  chil- 
dren do  in  fourteen  years,  commencing  at  five,  should 
we  rest  satisfied,  or  should  we  modify  our  system 
so  as  to  profit  by  their  experience?  Why  permit 
traditions  or  precedent  to  rob  us  of  choice  benefits 
within  our  reach? 

Again,  the  students  entering  the  Norwegian  uni- 
versity are  older  and  more  mature  both  physically 
and  mentally  than  are  ours.  Being  older,  their  habits 
of  life  are  more  definitely  formed,  and  they  are  better 
fitted  to  undertake  the  responsibility  of  self-direction. 
It  has  been  suggested  by  some  that  we  extend  the  work 
of  the  high  school  in  order  to  keep  our  children  under 
parental  guidance  until  they  are  sufficiently  mature 
to  care  for  themselves  at  less  hazard. 


INTERPRETATIVE  CONCLUSIONS  219 


The  course  pursued  by  Norwegian  pupils  is  uni- 
form for  all  until  the  last  two  years  of  the  secondary 
school,  when  certain  branches  of  study  may  be  chosen 
for  major  attention.  When  students  start  to  the  uni- 
versity they  enter  immediately  upon  specialized  lines 
of  work  and  pursue  them  to  their  limits.  The  Amer- 
ican pupils  are  privileged  to  elect  a considerable  pro- 
portion of  their  secondary  school  work,  yet  they  do 
not  generally  specialize  at  all  until  their  junior  year  in 
college;  frequently  they  postpone  definite  specialization 
until  the  beginning  of  graduate  courses. 

Fundamental  social  characteristics  enter  into 
educational  ideals,  and  each  nation,  very  naturally, 
develops  a system  of  schools  peculiarly  adapted  to 
its  needs.  There  are,  of  course,  general  underlying 
principles  which  operate  in  all  educational  systems 
and  place  them  on  similar  bases;  there  are  also  cer- 
tain features,  essential  in  the  make-up  of  the  individ- 
ual systems,  which  are  not  common.  These  peculiar 
factors  give  distinctive  character  to  the  various  sys- 
tems and  are  of  telling  effect  in  determining  their 
excellencies.  Whether  these  special  phases  affect  the 
life  and  accomplishments  of  the  pupils,  the  nature  of 
their  work,  the  management  of  school  affairs,  or  other 
educational  activities;  they  render  the  different  systems 
almost  impossible  of  comparison.  However,  they  are 
suggestive,  and  frequently  they  may  be  modified  and 
used  in  improving  the  systems  of  other  countries. 


220  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION 

Every  successful  teacher  presents  his  subject  in  con- 
formity with  some  universal  principles  of  method.  While 
these  cannot  be  mechanically  systematized  and  used 
according  to  unchanging  rules,  they  form  a necess- 
ary part  of  an  instructor’s  equipment.  The  teacher 
who  knows  the  subject  and  is  master  of  the  technique 
of  instruction  is  sure  of  success,  while  the  one  with- 
out method  will  fail. 

It  seems  that  the  pedagogues  of  Norway  have 
formed  a happy  combination  of  some  methods  of 
instruction.  They  appreciate  the  value  of  the  class 
meeting  and  with  them  “teaching  goes  on  chiefly  in 
what  we  call  the  recitation . This  is  the  teacher’s  point 
of  contact  with  his  pupils;  here  he  meets  them  face  to 
face  and  mind  to  mind;  here  he  succeeds  or  fails  in 
his  function  of  teaching.”* 

The  excellence  of  the  work  of  instruction  in  Ger- 
many has  long  been  recognized.  That  44 the  German 
teacher  teaches”  is  very  generally  known.  He  tran- 
scends all  texts  and  is  an  authority  on  the  subjects 
he  presents.  By  pedagogic  training  he  has  been 
exalted  to  a place  of  eminence  in  his  profession.  It 
is  possible  that  they  over-emphasize  the  work  of  the 
instructor  and  neglect  the  part  that  pupils  should 
play. 

In  America  various  methods  of  instruction  are 
in  use.  One  plan  is  to  regard  teacher  and  pupils  as 
co-operators  in  activities  wherein  interests  are  common. 

* Betts,  G.  H.,  The  Recitation,  p.  2. 


INTERPRETATIVE  CONCLUSIONS  221 


The  teacher,  having  had  experience,  exercises  Control 
and  serves  as  chief  guide  through  the  most  critical 
places  in  the  way  of  progress.  So  far  as  possible  the 
pupils  are  encouraged  to  exercise  individual  initiative 
and  to  become  independent.  They  are  not  to  be 
merely  recipients  from  the  teacher’s  vast  store  of 
knowledge,  but  with  him  they  are  to  become  genuine 
participators  in  the  world’s  thoughts  and  activities. 

Another  plan  in  all  too  common  use  may  be 
designated  as  the  “text  book  method.”  According 
to  it  the  major  portion  of  information  comes  from  the 
voluminous,  logically  developed,  well-arranged,  and 
somewhat  attractively  printed  and  bound  readable 
text.  The  function  of  the  teacher  is  largely  testing 
knowledge  gained  from  books,  assigning  lessons  in 
the  text,  supplementing  the  work  of  the  pupils  from 
his  own  store  or  by  reference  to  other  works  on  the 
subject,  and  stimulating  them  to  earnest  effort  in 
every  possible  way. 

President  Hall  would  not  regard  this  text  book 
plan  of  work  as  very  worthy  procedure.  He  writes 
that  some  teachers  take  time  “telling  pupils  what  to 
do  and  testing  to  see  if  they  have  done  it.  But  this 
is  not  teaching;  but  a device  of  ignorance,  laziness,  or 
physical  weakness,  or  all  combined.  The  real  teacher 
teaches  and  reduces  recitation  to  a minimum.  Who- 
ever has  visited  the  best  continental  schools  or  studied 
comparatively  such  national  educational  exhibitions 
as  those  of  St.  Louis  must  have  been  acutely  impressed 
with  the  fact  that  we  exhibit  what  the  pupil  does, 
Europe  what  the  teacher  does.  Here  he  says,  ‘Go, 


222  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


do  this,  and  prove  to  me  that  you  have  done  it.’ 
There  he  says,  ‘Come,  let  us  study  together;  I know 
and  will  inform,  interest  and  inspire  you  to  go  on.’  ”* 

The  instructors  in  the  schools  of  Norway  are  true 
teachers  but  they  do  not  rely  wholly  upon  their  own 
activity.  The  text  finds  a place  not  so  large  as  in 
American  schools  but  of  some  consequence.  The  pupils 
are  privileged  to  act  on  their  own  initiative  to  some 
extent  though  they  are  not  granted  unlimited  freedom. 
They  co-operate  with  the  teachers  in  many  lines  of 
school  work  where  they  find  interest  and  profit.  Dem- 
onstration is  largely  in  the  hands  of  the  teachers. 
The  testing  of  lessons  studied  is  a common  exercise 
with  them,  and  their  class  hours  are  given  to  intensive 
activity  in  which  every  individual  member  is  expected 
to  be  a participant  and  contributor.  They,  like  we 
in  America,  aim  to  suit  instruction  to  pupils  of  average 
ability  rather  than  to  the  brightest  as  they  do  in  Ger- 
many and  France. 

CONTINUITY  OF  EFFORT 

By  referring  to  the  programs  of  work  arranged 
for  the  successive  years  in  the  schools  of  Norway,  one 
readily  sees  that  there  is  but  little  variation  in  sub- 
jects of  study  from  the  first  grades  of  the  primary 
school  to  the  completion  of  the  gymnasium.  The 
change  of  greatest  importance  is  the  introduction 
of  foreign  languages — German  and  English  the  first 
and  second  years  in  the  middle  schools  and  French  the 
first  year  in  the  gymnasium. 

* Hall,  G.  Stanley,  Educational  Problems,  Vol.  II.,  p.  295. 


INTERPRETATIVE  CONCLUSIONS  223 


When  the  child  enters  school  he  begins  subjects 
of  study  which  represent  the  several  fields  of  knowl- 
edge. The  teaching  aims  to  keep  him  in  touch  with 
these  in  ways  adapted  to  his  stage  of  development. 
As  the  pupil  grows  the  scope  of  each  subject  enlarges. 
They  advance  together.  Keeping  the  subject  definitely 
in  mind  for  a long  time  tends  to  the  creation  of  perma- 
nent interests  and  at  the  same  time  makes  possible 
its  assimilation  into  the  very  life  of  the  learner.  It 
becomes  vital  and  usable  after  being  acted  upon  in 
the  various  stages  and  conditions  of  life  through  which 
the  child  passes.  Inter-relations  and  associations  with 
other  subjects  of  study  and  various  phases  of  life  are 
affected,  which  give  to  it  distinct  values.  Too  often 
we  find  in  our  own  schools  that  hurried  and  intensive 
study  of  certain  subjects  does  not  create  permanent 
interests  nor  prove  of  real  worth. 

If  natural  forces  in  the  child  are  recognized  and 
utilized  they  facilitate  the  learning  process  and  make 
school  activities  profitable  and  delightful.  It  is  a well 
attested  fact  that  at  certain  periods  in  the  psycholo- 
gical development  of  a child  mastery  of  special  phases 
of  learning  is  easy  for  him.  Courses  of  study  and 
plans  of  instruction  should  be  prepared  in  such  a way 
that  the  different  phases  of  work  included  may  be 
presented  and  stressed  while  the  nascent  period  of 
interest  is  on. 

We  Americans  are  given  to  dividing  a subject 
into  its  separate  phases,  studying  them  consecutively 
for  short  periods  of  time,  and  then  forgetting  them. 
The  plan  is  wasteful  and  unpedagogic.  Note  the 


224  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


manner  in  which  we  break  up  the  work  in  mathematics 
and  in  the  mother  tongue.  It  is  questionable  whether 
there  be  a single  valid  argument  favoring  such  practice. 

The  Norwegians  present  mathematics  as  a single 
and  comprehensive  subject.  The  same  is  true  in  their 
teaching  of  the  mother  tongue.  The  plan  is  advan- 
tageous from  every  view  point.  It  is  certainly  con- 
ducive to  economy  of  time  and  efficient  results. 
Instead  of  breaking  up  subjects  of  instruction  and 
isolating  their  several  phases  from  each  other,  we 
ought  rather  to  keep  them  intact  and  set  about 
co-ordinating  the  several  branches  of  instruction  as 
closely  as  possible. 

Education  should  seek  to  associate  and  inter- 
relate the  truths  we  obtain  and  to  organize  our  knowl- 
edge into  an  effectual  system.  The  formation  of  a 
comprehensive  curriculum,  with  arrangements  for  its 
presentation  in  harmony  with  sound  psychological 
and  pedagogical  principles,  is  a matter  of  pressing 
importance. 

While  the  school  systems  of  the  present  are  evi- 
dently superior  to  what  any  past  generation  has 
known,  yet  the  investigations  of  psychologists  and 
educationists  stress  the  fact  that  in  many  ways  they 
are  weak  and  inefficient.  The  accumulated  experi- 
ence of  the  past  needs  overhauling  by  masters  with 
insight  and  foresight.  Educational  methods  and  prin- 
ciples which  have  been  tested  and  proven  worthy 
should  be  put  into  operation.  Each  nation  should 
devise  and  adopt  the  most  perfect  educational  system 
possible,  and  this  then  should  be  carried  into  execu- 
tion by  an  army  of  qualified  teachers  responsive  to 
the  call  for  truly  consecrated  service. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


BOOKS 

Erichsen,  A.  E.,  Bergers  Kathedralskoles  Historie. 
Hertzberg,  N.,  Paedagogiskens  Historie. 

Holst,  Axel,  Skolehygiene. 

Monroe,  W.  S.,  In  Viking  Land.  Norway:  Its  People, 
Its  Fjords  and  Its  Fjelds. 

Paludan,  J.,  Det  Hoiere  Skolevaesen  i Danmark , Norge 
og  Sverig. 

Salmonsens  Store  Illustrerede  Konversationsleksikon. 
Thieste,  J.  Schaan,  Byskoleloven  med  Forklarende 
Anmerkninger. 

Thieste,  J.  Schaan,  Landskoleloven  med  Forklarende 
Anmerkninger. 

PERIODICALS  AUD  REPORTS 

Anderssen,  Otto,  Fra  Norske  Skoleforhold  i 1908 , Vor 
Ungdom , 1909. 

Anderssen,  Otto,  Fra  Norske  Skoleforhold  i 1909 , Vor 
Ungdom , 1910. 

Anderssen,  Otto,  i6  Norwegisches  Schulwesen , ” Son - 
derabdruck  aus  W.  Reins  Encyklopadis- 
chem  Handbuch  der  Padagogik , 2.  Auflage. 
Anderssen,  Otto,  Skolen  for  Skolens  Opgaver. 

m 


226  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


Anderssen,  Otto,  “The  Jsew  Laws  for  the  Secondary 
Schools  in  Norway,”  Special  Reports  on 
Educational  Subjects,  Gt.  Britain,  8:168. 

Heiberg,  J.  V.,  “Education  in  Norway,”  Norway 
(Official  Publication  for  the  Paris  Exhi- 
bition 1900),  pp.  266-294. 

Nissen,  Hartvig,  “Public  Instruction  in  Norway,” 
The  American  Journal  of  Education,  8: 
295-304. 

Norsk  Skoletidende,  Published  since  1869. 

Pogue,  Belle  C.,  “Education  and  Schools  of  Norway,” 
Education,  10:  420-424. 

Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  of  the  United 
States,  1871,  1873,  1878,  1881,  1882-3, 
1885-6,  1888-9,  1889-90,  1891-2,  1894-5, 
1896-7,  1897-8,  1902,  1903,  1906,  1910. 

Skolebladet,  Published  since  1898. 

Thornton,  J.  S.,  “Schools  Public  and  Private  in  the 
North  of  Europe,”  Special  Reports  on 
Educational  Subjects,  Great  Britain,  17: 
36-65. 

Void,  J.  Mourly,  Report  of  Royal  Commission  of 
Secondary  Education,  Great  Britain,  5: 
640-644. 

OFFICIAL  PUBLICATIONS 

Beretning  om  Skolevaesenets  tilstand  i Kongeriget 
Norge.  Yearly  since  1861. 

Forslag  til  en  forandret  Ordning  af  den  hpiere  Almen- 
skole  af  den  ved  kgl.  Resolutions  af 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


227 


3 die  September  1890  nedsatte  Kom- 
mission. 

Gymnasiet:  Lov  om  hpiere  Almenskoler;  Reglement 
for  de  hpiere  Almenskoler;  Undervis- 
ningssplan;  Eksamensreglement ; 1911. 

Lov  af  9de  June  1903  om  forandret  Prpver  ved  Uni- 
versitetet. 

Lov  om  abnprme  Bprns  Undervisning. 

Lov  om  behandling  af  forspmte  Bprn. 

Lov  om  det  Kongelige  Frederiks  Universitet. 

Lov  om  Folkeskolen  i Kjpbstaederne. 

Lov  om  Folkeskolen  paa  Landet. 

Lov  om  hpiere  Almenskoler. 

Lov  om  Laererskoler  og  Prpver  for  Laerere  og  Laerer- 
inder  i Folkeskolen. 

Middelskolen : Lov  om  hpiere  Almenskoler;  Regle- 
ment for  de  hpiere  Almenskoler;  Under- 
visningsplan ; Eksamensreglement . 1911. 

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Norwege:  Lois  sur  L’Enseignement  Public. 

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228  THE  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  NORWAY 


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Reglement  for  det  Paedagogiske  Seminar  og  Paeda- 
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Statistisk  Aarbok  for  Kongeriket  Norge.  Yearly. 

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Universitets-og  Skole-Annaler.  Yearly. 


INDEX 


Age  of  pupils,  44-49;  completing 
secondary  schools,  48;  on  en- 
tering the  university,  48;  in 
teachers’  seminaries,  49. 

Age  of  teachers,  49. 

Agriculture,  24. 

America  of  interest  to  the  Nor- 
wegians, 173. 

Apparatus,  145-146. 

Astronomy,  177. 

Attendance  at  school,  54,  77. 

Authority,  189. 

Certificates,  80. 

Centralization  of  authority,  191. 

Christiania’s  central  kitchen,  75, 
76. 

Christianity  established,  20. 

Church  and  state  united,  115,184. 

Classes,  size  of,  40. 

Classics,  in  America,  204;  in 
Germany,  204;  their  decline, 
202. 

Climate,  effects  of,  183. 

Co-education,  40,  210-214;  in 
America,  211-213;  in  Germany, 

211. 

Cooking,  148. 

Co-ordination,  between  grades, 
149;  between  subjects,  162;  of 
educational  agencies,  186. 

Correlation,  223;  between  schools 
189,  190. 

Course  of  study,  57,  96-181,  197- 
207,  209,  218,  219;  aim  of,  148; 
changes  in,  97;  development  of, 
97-101,  222,  223;  during  mid- 


dle ages,  96;  linguistic-histori- 
cal, 31;  Latin,  31;  real  31; 
secondary,  171;  suited  to 
people  served,  219;  uniform- 
ity of,  198. 

Defective  children,  186. 

Department  of  Ecclesiastical  and 
Educational  Affairs,  51. 

Delinquents,  mental,  187;  moral, 
187. 

Diocesan  directors,  52. 

Discipline  in  school,  76,  77. 

Distribution  of  schools,  34,  35. 

Drawing,  146,  147. 

Educational  commission,  52. 

Educational  attainments,  Nor- 
way and  America  compared, 
216-219;  time  required,  217, 
218. 

Educational  authority,  188. 

Educational  equipment,  Norway 
and  America  compared,  49,  50. 

Educational  requirements,  27, 
34;  parents  held  responsible 
for  55. 

Educational  standards,  54,  55. 

Educational  system,  184,  188. 

Electives,  207,  208. 

English,  156, 172, 173;  in  elemen- 
tary schools,  173;  its  grammar, 
156;  length  of  course,  173; 
methods  in,  156. 

Examen  artium , 31 . 

Examinations,  uniformity  in,  188. 

Exceptional  child,  186. 

Eyesight,  77,  78. 


230 


INDEX 


Fisheries,  24. 

French,  168-170;  difficulties  in 
study  of,  170;  length  of  course, 
169. 

Geography,  129-134,  158,  159, 
177;  aim  in,  129, 159;  methods 
of  presenting,  130-133;  of 
America,  133;  texts,  159. 

German,  154,  155,  167,  168; 
authors  studied,  168;  methods 
in,  155. 

Grammar,  153,  154,  156. 

Gymnasium,  100,  163-181,  207- 
210. 

Gymnastic  halls,  69. 

Gymnastics,  69,  70,  74,  75,  148, 
204-206;  apparatus,  148;  dur- 
ing intermissions,  69, 70;  Swed- 
ish system  of,  75. 

Hall,  G.  S.,  189,  190. 

Harold,  the  Fair-Haired,  19. 

Health  of  pupils,  77,  78, 148,  205. 

History,  19,  134-139,  156-158, 
174-177;  aim  of,  134,  138;  be- 
ginnings in,  134;  methods  in, 
157,  158,  176;  of  Norway,  176; 
nature  of  work  in,  157 ; related 
to  geography,  135;  stories,  134, 
135,  138. 

Houses  for  janitors,  70;  for  prin- 
cipals, 70;  for  teachers  in  the 
rural  districts,  70,  71. 

Ideals  of  the  people,  182,  183. 

Illustrative  materials,  66. 

Imitation,  law  of,  82. 

Industrial  training,  147,  148. 

Industries  and  occupations,  24. 

Infant  schools,  53. 

Intermissions,  69,  70. 

Laboratories,  67,  68,  69. 

Latin,  173-174,  202;  courses  in, 
167;  length  of  course  in,  174; 
methods  in,  174. 


Libraries,  67,  68. 

Lumbering,  24. 

Lunches,  75,  76,  215,  216. 

Lunch  rooms,  69;  in  Christiania, 
215,  216. 

Luther,  influence  of,  on  educa- 
tion, 184. 

Lutheran  church,  114,  115. 

Management  of  schools,  188-191. 

Manual  training,  147,  148. 

Martin  Luther’s  influence  in  edu- 
cation, 184. 

Mathematics,  125-129,  160,  178, 
179,  223;  aim  in,  125;  connec- 
tion between  phases  of  the 
subject,  160;  co-ordination  in 
128;  methods  in,  128,  129; 
texts  in,  129;  thoroughness  in, 
160;  use  of,  128. 

Medical  inspection,  77,  78. 

Mental  delinquency,  187. 

Methods,  72,  73,  74,  82,  83,  219- 
222;  in  German,  155;  in  his- 
tory, 157,  158,  176;  in  mother 
tongue,  118,  119;  in  nature 
study,  140;  in  religion,  163, 
164,  200. 

Middle  school,  31,  32,  100,  149- 
162;  its  aim,  149, 150;  its  found- 
ation, 149;  length  of  course  in, 
149,  150;  its  limits,  149;  work 
of,  31,  32. 

Moral  delinquents,  prevention 
and  care  of,  187. 

Mother  tongue,  118-124, 152-154, 
164-167;  aim  on  instruction  in, 
118;  correct  use  of,  123;  in 
America,  124;  inclusiveness  of 
work  in,  123,  124;  methods  in, 
118,  119;  nature  of  work  in, 

166,  167. 

Natural  history,  179-181;  labora- 
tory work  in,  180,  181. 

Nature  study,  139-146,  161,  162, 
179-181;  aim  of,  139;  illustra- 
tive material  in,  140-146; 


INDEX 


231 


Nature  Study, 

character,  161,  162;  laboratory 
work  in,  180,  181;  methods  in, 
140;  scope  of,  139. 

Norway,  adopts  constitution,  20; 
area  of,  22;  becomes  independ- 
ent, 22;  climate  of,  23;  develop- 
ment of,  20, 183;  geography  of, 
22;  history  of,  19;  nights  in,  24; 
period  of  transition  in,  >183; 
political  divisions  of,  22;  revolt 
of,  20;  its  union  with  Den- 
mark, 20;  its  union  with  Swe- 
den, 20. 

Normal  schools  in  the  United 
States,  193,  194. 

Norwegians,  characteristics  of, 
25,  26,  27;  as  colonizers,  20; 
as  sailors,  25;  conservative, 

184,  185;  democratic,  184, 

185. 

Observation  and  practice,  83,  84. 
Occupations,  24. 

Offices,  67,  68. 

Officials,  duties  of,  188;  efficiency 
of,  189. 

Organization,  needed  in  America, 
189. 

Paganism  overcome,  20. 
Pedagogical  seminary,  84,  85, 
185,  193,  195. 

Pensions,  92,  93. 

People,  ideals  of,  182, 183. 
Permanency  of  teaching  posi- 
tions, 87-89;  advantages  of,  87; 
objections  to,  88;  present  ten- 
dencies with  reference  to,  89. 
Physical  culture,  204-207. 
Physician,  77,  78. 

Physical  geography,  177. 
Political  geography,  177. 

Practice  teaching,  83,  84. 

Private  citizens,  their  part  in 
school  affairs,  61,  62. 


Primary  education,  52. 

Private  institutions,  81. 

Private  schools,  42-44,  54,  186; 
equipment  of,  43;  inspection  of, 
43;  recognition  of,  44;  second- 
ary, 186;  teachers’  seminaries, 
186;  technical  institutes,  186; 
tuition  in,  43. 

Primary  schools,  36-39,  185;  at- 
tendance in,  36-39;  course  of 
study  in,  102,  104,  106;  curri- 
culum in,  99;  rural  and  city, 
101;  their  financing,  62. 

Professional  training,  33,  '79-85, 
194,  195;  amount  of,  194,  195; 
attitude  toward,  194;  stand- 
ards of,  33. 

Promotion  of  teachers,  198. 

Pupils,  in  gymnasia,  40;  in  lower 
schools,  40;  in  middle  schools 
40. 

Recitation,  method  of,  72  , 4. 

Religion,  108-117. 

Religious  characters,  114. 

Religious  education,  115-117,151, 
152,  163,  164,  199-202;  advan- 
tages of,  116;  excused  from, 
117;  loss  of  interest  in,  163, 
164;  methods  in,  163,  164, 
200;  objection  to,  116,  117;  re- 
quired, 116;  results  of,  115- 
117. 

Royal  Frederik  University,  32. 

Schools,  agricultural,  33;  ambula- 
tory, 29;  cathedral,  30;  com- 
munal, 63;  elementary,  29,  30; 
gymanasial,  30;  maintained  by 
industrial  concerns,  53;  middle, 
30;  military,  33;  peoples’,  28; 
state,  63;  technical,  33;  their 
distribution,  34,  35. 

School  boards,  committees  of, 
56;  officers  of,  56;  organiza- 
tion of,  55,  56. 


232 


INDEX 


School  buildings,  appointment 
and  equipment  of,  64-69;  con- 
struction of,  205. 

School  committees,  appointed  by 
board,  56;  duties  of,  57,  58,  59. 

School  curriculum,  197-207. 

School  discipline,  76,  77. 

School  districts,  53. 

School  funds,  62. 

School  grounds,  205. 

School  life,  in  Norway,  217,  218; 
in  America,  217,  218. 

School  physician,  77,  78. 

School  principal,  60;  duties  of, 
60,  61. 

School  room  decoration,  67. 

School  system,  its  development, 
197. 

School  year,  54,  55;  compared 
with  American,  50;  length  of, 
28;  in  America,  214. 

Secondary  schools,  52,  149,  185; 
select  strongest  pupils,  149. 

Sewing,  148. 

Special  classes  for  defectives,  186. 

Special  teachers,  80. 

Specialization  in  university,  51. 

Standards  of  work,  190. 

Superintendent,  60,  85;  duties  of, 
60. 


Teachers,  attitude  toward  youth, 
83;  certificates,  80;  life  of,  195- 
197;  rooms  for,  67,  68;  salaries 
of,  63,  91-95;  sex  of,  71,  72; 
special  considerations,  91,  92; 
their  tenure  of  office,  71,  72. 

Teacher’s  qualifications,  79,  80, 
146, 196;  improvement  of,  196; 
in  secondary  schools,  79,  80. 

Teachers’  seminaries,  33,  193; 
attendance  at,  42;  curricula  in, 
82;  private,  41;  weaknesses  of, 
83;  work  of,  81. 

Teachers’  tenure  of  office,  86-91; 
in  America,  89. 

Teachers’  titles,  85-86;  signific- 
ance of,  86;  use  of,  86. 

Teachers’  training,  81,  83,  84, 
85,  191-195;  for  secondary 

schools,  85;  in  Germany,  192- 
193. 

Teaching  as  a profession,  in  Nor- 
way, 79,  80;  its  value,  196. 

Technical  schools,  185. 

Vikings,  19. 

Vocal  music,  in  America,  207;  its 
influence,  206;  Napoleon  on, 
206:  nature  of,  in  Norway,  147. 


Writing,  146. 


1 


/ 


UNIVERSITY  OF  ILUNOIS-URBANA 


12 


>1940380 


